Nature

116

NATURE

in the plants of our own part of Europe since Glacial or pre-Glacial times.

The conclusion follows that at any given time, apart from the relatively short critical periods when changed conditions had to be met, we must expect to find organisms in a state of complete adaptation to their surroundings. When physical, and especially mechanical, conditions are in question, such as have practically remained constant through all geological time, we may reckon on finding the corresponding adaptive structures essentially the same at the earliest periods as they are now.

Hence the attempt to support the Darwinian theory by the detection of imperfect mechanical adaptations in was well shown by Palæozoic plants is wholly futile, as the late Prof. Westermaier. This author's own point of view was not that of a Darwinian, but, nevertheless, his conviction that efficient adaptation has always been characteristic of living organisms is a perfectly sound one, thoroughly in harmony both with the principles of Darwin and Wallace, and with the observed facts, as far back, at any rate, as the palæontological record extends. In particular, Westermaier's contention that the construction of the Carboniferous plants followed the laws of mechanical stability and economy of material, just as is the case in plants of our own day, is completely confirmed by accurate observations on their structure, while an opponent's supposed detection of Palæozoic constructions "in direct contradiction to the principles of the engineer" merely showed that the critic had failed to distinguish between the supporting and conducting tissues of the plant. It appears to have been characteristic of Paleozoic plants that their mechanical tissues were, to a great extent, independent of the wood and concentrated in the outer cortex-the most advantageous position on engineering principles. Dictyoxylon type For example, the extremely prevalent of cortex, in which bands of strong, fibrous tissue, united to form a network, alternate with the living parenchyma an admirable mechanical enclosed in their meshes, was construction for stems which did not attain any great thickness by secondary growth.

In the Calamites we find, in young stems, the same alternation of fibrous and parenchymatous bands in the cortex, which is so familiar to physiological anatomists in the stems of our living horsetails.

The great tree-ferns of the later Carboniferous (if ferns they were) evidently depended for their mechanical strength on a stereome or supporting tissue quite distinct from the vascular system, and for the most part peripherally disTheir power of resistance to posed, as it should be. bending strains was no doubt greatly increased by the dense external envelope of strongly constructed adventitious roots, imbedded in the cortex, a mode of support which we meet with in some monocotyledons such as Kingia (Liliaceae) and species of Puya (Bromeliaceae) at present day.

the

construc

When we come to the most highly organised of the the the Cordaitales, constituting Palæozoic plants, characteristic gymnosperms of that epoch, we find that Dictyoxylon the young stems had the same was SO common among the contion of the cortex as The cordaitean wood, temporary fern-like seed-plants. however, often assumed a dense structure, and in many cases (as also sometimes occurred among the pteridosperms) there were tangential bands of narrow fibre-like wood-elements, suggesting, though not identical with, the autumn wood of recent coniferous trees, and no doubt subserving a special mechanical function.

The exigencies of secondary growth, when occurring on a great scale, ultimately demand that the mechanical tissues should be seated in the wood, on the inner side of the growing zone, though this is not the best position on engineering principles. The old plants were, on the whole, more correct in their methods; their successors have more often had to adopt a compromise, which sacrifices a certain degree of mechanical efficiency in order to facilitate construction.

In the leaves of the Cordaiteæ we meet with remarkably perfect types of mechanical construction showing various applications of the I-girdle principle, with utilisation of the "web" for the protection of the conducting vascular strands. The construction is on the same lines as that

of many of the monocotyledonous leaves investigated
Schwendener in his classical work. It will be remember
that the cordaitean leaves were originally classed as the
of monocotyledons, which they closely resemble in f
and mechanical requirements. Here there is no secondary
growth to disturb the lines of a rational construction;
leaves were of great length and borne on lofty, stem
requiring a strong mechanical system for their supper
and hence we find that they present admirable illustrati
of engineering principles.

the sa
Without pursuing the subject further, it may be add.
that other Palæozoic leaves show essentially
types of mechanical construction as are found in leaves.
corresponding shape and dimensions in the living flora.

These few illustrations may suffice to show that, frem an engineering point of view, the plants of the Palæoz were just as well constructed to resist the strains to what their organs were exposed as are their recent successors. I have elsewhere dwelt on the gradual change in the construction of the wood, correlated with the on-coming of secondary growth, and have traced the slow extincti cryptogamic, of the old, centripetally developed wood as the newer, centrifugal wood, derived from a cambium, more and more effectually took its place. In the form we have to do with a structure becoming vestigial, but is interesting to note how the doomed tissue always left in its old age to be a mere pensioner on its more active neighbours, but was often employed, whit survived, on such work as it was still able to do. W find, in quite a number of cases, that the central wood had changed its character, and shows by its structure the it had become adapted to the storage rather than to th transmission of the water-supply, its earlier function no wood. Such utilisation of vestigial structure appears being more conveniently left to the external parts of the be a good mark of a high standard of adaptation.

was n

Another interesting case of adaptive specialisation in ar organ which may be regarded as of an old-fashioned type is to be found in the rootlets of Stigmaria. The nature of these appendages has been much disputed; last year we had an interesting discussion on the subject, opened by Prof. Weiss. I have used the word "old-fashioned because there is some reason to suppose that these orgar were not yet quite sharply differentiated as roots; at an rate, there are certain points in which they rather resemb modified leaves, though in my opinion the root-characters Though they may thus be "primitive." current morphological predominate. from the point of view of our categories, these organs, as Prof. Weiss has discovered show a remarkable, adaptive mechanism in the presenc of strands of water-conducting elements running out from the central vascular bundle, and terminating in plates c The whole constitutes tracheæ placed in the outer cortex. an absorptive apparatus more elaborate than anything found in recent roots, if we except a few highly specialised haustorial roots of parasites. This example seems to m instructive, for it shows how a very high degree of adapta tion may co-exist with characters which suggest a somewhat archaic type of organ.

As an example of adaptation to more special conditions. | I may instance the xerophytic characters shown by various Carboniferous plants, especially in the structure of their leaves.

Though there is no question of absolute perfection in nature, it appears that, under given conditions, adaptation is and was sufficiently perfect to make it very difficult to put one's finger on any defect. When we think we can do so, it generally turns out that the defect is in the mint of the critic rather than in the organism criticised. We will take a particular case, where the history seems to give some justification for our fault-finding.

The late Palæozoic family Medullose were in some respects the most remarkable plants, from an anatomical point of view, that we know of. Most of them were plants of great size, with rather sturdy stems bearing immense fern-like fronds; the habit altogether must have been something like that of a tree-fern, but their repre duction was by large seeds, borne on the fronds. To

1 Scott, "The Old Wood and the New" (Vew Phytologist, vol. i., 1902) 2 Megaloxylon, Zalesskya, Lepidodendron selaginoides.

JULY 22, 1909]

NATURE

adapt the vascular system of the stem to the supply of the large and compound leaves, the polystelic type of structure was assumed, i.e. the single vascular cylinder (still to be recognised in some of the earlier members of the group) became broken up, in various ways, into a number of distinct cylinders, only connected at intervals. So far the change was in the same general direction as in the evolution of the higher ferns; the fossil family, however, was not content with a complex primary vascular system, but must have secondary growth as well. Now if you have a number of vascular columns in the same stem, each growing continuously in thickness on its own account, it is evident that very special arrangements will be necessary to avoid overcrowding. The difficulty was overcome, and some time flourished among the the Medulloseæ for dominant families-the Permian formation represents their Golden age. But one is tempted to think that the system was too complicated to last; at any rate, it seems not to have lasted, for these elaborate stems have not been found in any later rocks. Either, as Mr. Worsdell supposes, the medullosean stem became reduced and simplified to form the cycadean type of stem of later days, or, as have an I am more inclined to believe, the family died out Even here, though altogether. instance of a cumbrous mechanism, over-reaching itself in elaboration, yet it worked well enough for a time, and it would be difficult to say exactly what the conditions were that led to its being superseded.

we seem

course

was

a gradual development from the The hypothesis of is not borne out by the of events simpler to the more complex facts of palæobotany-the real On a general view, as Darwin infinitely more involved. the geological record does not extend himself recognised, far enough back to show with unmistakable clearness that within the known history of the world organisation This wise saying has been too has largely advanced." often overlooked by those who have tried to popularise evolution-it is eminently true of the geological history of plants. Though there is no doubt a balance on the side of advance, due chiefly to the increasing complexity of the inter-relations among the organisms themselves, the general progress since Paleozoic days is by no means so great as has often been assumed, and we may be sure that as our knowledge of the older plants increases we shall come to form a still higher estimate than we do now of their adaptive organisation.

It has been alleged that it is the fact of the gradual appearance of higher forms which enables us to determine the relative age of strata by their fossils. So far as plants are concerned, this statement is only true to a very limited extent. A fossil angiosperm, no doubt, would be evidence of an age not earlier than the Cretaceous, but, on the other hand, a lycopod of much higher organisation than a establish strong presumption of would at present Paleozoic age; so would the higher forms of the equisetales; a cycadophyte with a fructification far more elaborate than that of recent Cycadacea would afford sure proof that the bed containing it belonged to the Lower Mesozoic. Of course, much depends on the meaning we give to " and "lower." If by "higher " we "higher the words mean nearer to the recent types, then it is merely a truism to say that the higher forms are characteristic of the we mean more elaborately later rocks; but if by "higher higher differentiated, then the statement quoted is, in any general sense, untrue. If, again, we imply by the word " more perfectly adapted to the existing conditions, then it would be very difficult to prove any advance, for, as I have endeavoured to show, adaptation has in every age been fully adequate in relation to the then conditions. If organisms have grown in complexity, it is only where the conditions of their life have become more complex. The most striking examples of high organisation in relation to organic environment are presented by the characteristic modern subkingdom, the angiosperms, in the, evolution of which, as Saporta pointed out, insect fertilisation has been the chief determining factor, leading to an infinite variety in the special adaptations of the flower, and no doubt indirectly affecting the mode of life of the whole plant. The advent of the angiosperms seems to have been almost 1 "Origin of Species," sixth edition, p. 308.

simultaneous with that of the higher families of insects,
which now, at all events, are chiefly concerned in pollina-
It would be difficult to overestimate the importance
of these relations in their effect on the flora of the world.
tion.
If the vegetation of our own epoch appears, on the whole,
periods, this is probably due in a greater degree to the
definitely more advanced than that of earlier geological
contemporary insect life than to any other cause.

I have discussed the subject of reduction in evolution
elsewhere, and will only briefly allude to it here.
many groups (lycopods, equisetales, cycadophytes) there
has been a lowering of the standard of organisation, partly
due to direct reduction, partly to the extinction of the
There are, however, many
higher forms in each group.
other cases in which the simplification of particular organs
means a real advance.

nature.

Taking into account all the causes which make for simplification, the question suggests itself whether, when we find a simple type of structure existing at the present It has sometimes been urged that such a preday, there is any presumption in favour of its primitive sumption exists (except when direct evidence of reduction can be adduced) on the ground that the general course of evolution must have been from the simpler to the more we have seen, subject to so many complex, a rule, as palæontological record extends, it has practically exceptions that, within the limited period to which the validity. My own conviction is that in such cases there is no presumption of primitiveness at all, and that we should demand very strong evidence before admitting that a given simple structure is primitive. Of course, it may happen that a primitive simple type, or at least an old simple type, may have survived to our own day; this may have been the case in decaying families, where the less advanced members have had the best chance of evading the competition of ascendant races; but, on the whole, it is very unlikely that, among all the changes and chances of the world's history, a really primitive simplicity should "The eternal ages are long," and have been preserved. there has been time enough for many ups and downs on every line of descent.

The subject of reduction, so essential a clue in any attempt to trace the course of evolution, suggests a reference to the question of the simpler angiospermous flowers. While the older morphologists were wont to interpret such flowers (e.g. those of Aroideæ, Piperaceæ, Cupulifera) as perfect" types, there has been a reductions from more as primitive structures from which more elaborate forms tendency in more recent times to accept the simpler flowers have been evolved. Quite lately, however, a reaction has set in, due to the discovery by Dr. Wieland of the wonderful bisexual flowers of the Mesozoic cycadophyta, which are constructed on the same plan (though, of course, with many differences in detail) as the more perfect angioangiospermous flower was derived from a source allied to spermous flowers, such as those of Magnoliaceæ. If the the Bennettiteæ, its evolution, as suggested by Wieland, must have been essentially a process of reduction. I only wish to point out that this view is not inconsistent with the great relative antiquity of simple and, ex hypothesi, reduced forms, for which, in the case of the Amentiferæ, there seems to be good geological evidence. appears to have often been a rapid, indeed a comparatively much-simplified forms in the same family in which the sudden, change, as shown by the frequent occurrence of probable that some groups with very simple flowers, though may be very ancient, tracing their origin primitive, prevailing structure is typically complete. It appears quite from forms which in quite early days underwent reduction (as a means of specialisation) from the highly developed flowers which probably characterised the first autonomous angiosperms.

not

Reduction

The tentative and somewhat fragmentary observations which I have here stated tend to the following conclusions:

(1) That at all known stages of the past history of plants there has been a thoroughly efficient degree of adaptation to the conditions existing at each period.

1 "Darwin and Modern Science." XII. The Falæontological Record. II. Plants. (1969.)

(2) That the characters of plants, having always been as highly adaptive as they now are, natural selection appears to afford the only key to evolution which we at present possess, for all periods covered by the palæontological record.

(3) That this record only reveals a relatively short section of the whole evolution of plants, during which, though there has been considerable change, there has not been, on the whole, any very marked advance in organisation except in cases where the conditions have become more complex, as shown especially in the floral adaptations of angiosperms.

(4) That simple forms existing at the present day are, as a rule, of a reduced rather than a primitive nature, but that such reduction may have often set in at a relatively early stage of evolution, and is, therefore, consistent with a considerable degree of antiquity in the reduced forms.

UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.

DR. C. G. BARKLA, demonstrator and assistant lecturer in physics at the University of Liverpool, has been appointed professor of physics in King's College, London, in succession to Prof. Harold A. Wilson, F.R.S., who has accepted an appointment in McGill University, Montreal. Mr. P. H. Kirkaldy has been appointed an assistant professor in chemistry in the same college.

HARVARD has this vear conferred only one honorary doctorate of science. The recipient is Mr. S. F. Emmons, of the U.S. Geological Survey. The University has conferred upon its late president, Dr. C. W. Eliot, not only the honorary LL.D., but the honorary M.D. "It has not been our custom, "said the new president, Prof. Lowell, "to confer the degree of Doctor of Medicine honoris causa, but an exception is fitting in the case of one who. in the opinion of professors of medicine, has accomplished more for the progress of medical education in this country than any other living man, Charles William Eliot.

Not

in its buildings alone, but also in the instruction and research within its walls, he found our medical school brick and left it marble. 99 At Yale the honorary D.Sc. has been conferred on Profs. E. W. Morley, W. T. Sedgwick, and E. H. Moore-a chemist, a biologist, and a mathematician respectively.

A FOURTH Series of lectures on scientific microscopy is to be held at the institute for microscopy of the University of Jena from October 11-16 next. Prof. H. Ambronn will give two lectures, the first on Abbe's theory of the formation of the microsconic image, and the second on the method of testing objective systems. Dr. H. Siedentopf also will lecture twice, dealing with dark-ground illumination and ultramicroscopy. Dr. A. Köhler's two lectures have for their subjects photomicrography: (a) projection of the image on the plate, (h) illumination of the object with transmitted and incident light, and photomicrography with ultra-violet light. In connection with each lecture suitable practical work has been arranged, and demonstrations also will be provided. Application for admission to the lectures should be made to Dr. Ehlers, Jena, Reethovenstr. No. 14. A fifth series of lectures wi!! be held from March 7-12, 1910, in the anatomical institute of the Leipzig University.

THE first volume of the report on attendance, compulsory or otherwise, at continuation schools, prepared by the Consultative Committee for the Board of Education, was published (Cd. 4757) a few days ago. The evidence on which the recommendations of the committee have been based will be issued later as a separate volume. The committee was instructed to consider, among other matters, "whether any means, and if so what, can be devised, in respect of rural areas and of urban areas respectively, for securing (i.) that a much larger proportion of boys and girls should on leaving the public elementary school commence and continue attendance at evening schools than at present do so, and (ii.) that emplovers and other persons or bodies in a position to give effective help shall cooperate in arranging facilities for such attendance on the part of their employees, and in planning suitable courses and subjects for the schools and classes." The witnesses examined by the committee included representatives of

employers of labour, of labour organisations, the Pu Services, local education authorities, teachers of all gra inspectors of schools, and persons specially interested philanthropy. The volume available, with its careful t sideration of every aspect of the problem, brings her forcibly to the reader its complexity and importance, we hope to deal more fully with the whole question i future issue. Here we will only express satisfaction ft. the views of enlightened educationists are being broug prominently into public view by reports such as that be us. The resolutions as to leaving age and continuare schools contained in the report of the Education Commin of the British Science Guild (NATURE, January 28, lxxix., p. 382) receive substantial support from the Cer sultative Committee's conclusions, and it may be hopel that action will be taken before long in the direction dicated by them. Most of the German States have copulsory continuation schools, and Scotland was placed the same position by its Education Act of last year. remains for England to adopt a like standard of education efficiency for its children.

ON the vote of 13,648,7921. for the expenses of the Board of Education, Mr. Runciman, President of the Board, maja a statement in the House of Commons last week reviewing the state of education in the country. Dealing technical education, the Minister spoke hopefully. It has been, he said, the object of the Board of Education : make technical education more practical, with a close bearing on the duties likely to be required from the young men and women who pass through technical classes. agriculture there is one remarkable fact, namely, garden classes in elementary schools have been enormoush on the increase, and during the last few years the number of these classes which are now carried on in these schod. has been trebled. There has been considerable developmen in technical classes which can be attended by those w intend to enter on an agricultural career, by young farmers and young labourers who at the present time have spend long and laborious days in the fields or farmhous but who are prepared to devote one or two evenings week to the specialised training which can be provided technical classes. The cumulative effect of technical trai ing on the young men and women of our country ma show itself sooner or later. The great employers t been giving help, said Mr. Runciman, in many parts the country to those who organise the technical school Messenger boys, for instance, are induced more and mor to take advantage of the classes in the evening. great employers, like the General Post Office, not only give direct inducement to their messenger boys, but put a certain amount of pressure on them to take advantage classes, and many emplovers all over the country have made it a condition of service in their works or their great bus ness establishments that the boys should attend a certain number of classes every week. The inspectors of the Board are not only taking a keen interest in the curriculum, but they are also acting as missionaries in what is one of the most useful forms of educational work initiated during the last few years. In concluding his speech, Mr. Run man pointed out that we still have nothing but an old, temporary building in which our valuable science collection is housed, and he expressed the hope that it may be possible in the near future to give this great collection a better building in which it may be exhibited, and to give to those who have lent or given to that museum some security that the objects which they have given will be well preserved and wel! exhibited.

Some

THE new engineering buildings of the University of Manchester were opened by Sir Alexander Kennedy or July 15. The general scheme comprises four adjacent buildings; the main block, a three-storied building, contains the lecture rooms, tutorial rooms, drawing offices. private rooms, and research room. The hydraulic and testing laboratory covers the space at the back of this building, and connected to it by a covered way are the thermodynamic laboratories and the workshop. Principal Hopkinson presided at the opening ceremony, and in the course of his remarks pointed out that the example set by the Owens College in 1866, in providing for the professional education of engineers, has been followed by all the

JULY 22, 1909]

NATURE

The

1,000,000 During his speech important universities in the country. Sir Alexander Kennedy made it clear that the old system of apprenticeship has become inadequate. The function of the laboratory, he said, is to try to let a man learn by handling, experiment, and measurement the nature of the materials with which he will have to deal later. extraordinarily rapid progress which has been made in mechanical and electrical engineering during the last generation has been largely due, Sir A. Kennedy thinks, On the part to the good training all over the country of the men who have to carry out the details of the work. of colleges and universities, he continued, there is a tendency to attempt to make students do a great deal too much. While it is necessary that an engineer shall have a knowledge of a great many things before he gets to his profession, he cannot acquire much knowledge in three years. It may be hoped that a strong university with a strong man at its head will draw a very distinct line in some common-sense fashion in defining what knowledge shall be imparted to the students. Sir William Mather proposed a vote of thanks to Sir A. Kennedy, and expressed his disappointment at the neglect displayed by the large engineering firms of the Manchester district in connection with the higher development of engineering science among The success of engineering in the future will young men. depend almost wholly on elements quite different from those which have distinguished it in the past. The next generation of engineers must be trained carefully by methods enabling them, above all things, to combine economy with efficiency. The technical school must perforce stop short of what may be called the practical part of applying machinery in the best possible way. To ensure success, there must, he continued, be a certain number of young students devoting themselves to laboratory work, and this extension of Manchester University must prove of great usefulness.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.

LONDON.

Physical Society, June 25.-Dr. C. Chree, F. R. S., president, in the chair.-A transition point in zinc amalgam : Prof. H. S. Carhart. The paper gave the preliminary results of an investigation which has for its primary object the determination of the heat of dilution of zinc amalgams. This heat of dilution is negative, that is, the dilution of zinc amalgam by the addition of mercury absorbs heat. In the course of the experimental work, which was conducted by Dr. W. D. Henderson, phenomena so extraordinary were encountered that the concentration at which they occur was called a transition point in zinc amalgam. The method employed was electrical, by means of a concentration cell, the only difference between the two legs of the cell of H-form being in the concentration of the amalgam composing the electrodes.-A method of producing an intense cadmium spectrum, with a proposal for the use_of mercury and cadmium as standards in refractometry: Dr. T. M. Lowry. Of the twenty-six wave-lengths that have been used in the study of rotatory dispersion (Proc. Roy. Soc., lxxxi., p. 472, November 19, 1908) the following seven have been found to be the most suitable for general

Cd
Hg
5461 5086

Cd 4800

Hg 4358

In refractometry it has been customary to use the series :-
HB
HY
4861 4341

На 6560

Na 5893

This series has the disadvantages (1) that the chief standard
Na 5893 is a doublet, and (2) that the other three lines
are of such weak intensity that they are useless for the
majority of optical measurements. It is therefore urged
that-in view of the readiness with which the mercury and
cadmium spectra can now be produced-the mercury green
line should be generally adopted in place of sodium as chief
standard in optical work of all kinds, and that the hydrogen
lines should be abandoned even as secondary standards in
favour of the series of wave-lengths set out above.-
The measurement of wave-length for high-frequency elec-
trical oscillations: A. Campbell. The experiments had
for their object the calibration of wave-meters for the
measurement of the high frequencies (200,000 up

Two

~ per second) used in wave-telegraphy. wave-meters (A and B) were tested, both being of the type consisting of a series of self-inductance coils used singly ammeter, the reading of K being obtained by altering the (L) in series with a variable air-condenser (K) and a thermocapacity until the circuit shows resonance with the working circuit. The coils of wave-meter (A) were wound with solid wire, those of (B) with stranded wire (7/36s), each strand being separately insulated. The absolute value of the frequency was determined by photographing sparktrains in the primary circuit by means of a rotating mirror running at a constant and accurately measured speed. The value of the frequency deduced from the measured values of K and L with wave-meter (B) were in close agreement with the actual frequency deduced from the spark-photoally not nearly so close, but was much improved when the graphs. With wave-meter (A) the agreement was naturvalues of the self-inductances of the solid wire coils were Heaviside and L. Cohen.-An electromagnetic method of corrected to the high-frequency values by the formulas of studying the theory of and solving algebraical equations of any degree: Dr. Russell and Mr. Alty. The problem of degree is identically the same as that of finding the posi" that is, the points where the tions of the "neutral points, finding the roots of an algebraical equation of the nth resultant force due to the earth and definite currents in n Then wires are arranged at long vertical wires is zero. any convenient distances apart in a plane which is at right wires are then adjusted to certain values which are readily angles to the magnetic meridian. The currents in the the coordinates of one of these neutral points measured with reference to certain definite axes, x, y, 1 is a pair of found by the methods of partial fractions. If x, and y, be roots of the original equation. All the real roots lie on the tions of the neutral points thus determine all the roots, axis of X which cuts the wire at right angles. The posireal and imaginary, of the given equation. The peculiar advantage of the method is that it is easy to see, in many cases almost at once, what effect varying the value of the coefficient of any power of x will have on the roots of the equation. The sine condition in relation to the coma of optical systems: S. D. Chalmers. The condition for the This has been proved by Clausius, correction of coma in a centred optical system is the wellHelmholtz, Hockin, and others, and the importance of this known sine condition. condition in the design of optical systems has been pointed out by Abbe, Steinheil, Conrady, and others. The present paper shows how to obtain the relation between the coma of a system and the errors in the sine condition.-A new Féry thermo-electric calorimeter: Dr. C. V. Drysdale. This the value of the gas produced in a gas-works or producerform of calorimeter can be used continuously, and permits plant to be watched from time to time.-An instrument The method consists in for measuring the strength of an intense horizontal maga conductor netic field: F. W. Jordaй. measuring directly the transverse force on traversed by a current in a direction at right angles to the a sensitive field. A method of determining the sensibility of a balance: Prof. Poynting.-The balance as barometer: Mr. Todd.

Challenger Society, June 30.-Dr. A. E. Shipley in the chair.-Colour changes in tropical sea perches from the Bermudas: C. T. Regan. In one case an individual Otto observations of Prof. specimen exhibited successively the coloration of three socalled species."-Recent Pettersson on tide-like movements in deep water: Dr. H. R. Mill. Daily observations on temperature and salinity were made at close intervals from surface to bottom in when covered by ice, between the Gullmar Fjord, in a lunar period, followed by a withdrawal of the sea January 30 and March 25 of this year. The effect was water and the filling up of the upper part of the fjord that of an invasion of sea water from the Skagerack twice with brackish land water in rhythmical succession, and Prof. Pettersson inclined to the belief that these movements were of tidal origin. Dr. Mill pointed out that Sir John Murray and he had shown that similar effects of a non-periodical kind were produced in sea- and freshwater lochs of Scotland by the action of wind, and that he had shown analogous effects on the Atlantic coast of the Hebrides.

120

PARIS.

new

same

NATURE

Academy of Sciences, July 12.-M. Émile Picard in
the chair. The nature of the change undergone by crystals
of heptahydrated sodium sulphate in contact with crystals
of the decahydrate: D. Gernez. From an examination of
the phenomena occurring with supersaturated solutions of
sodium sulphate, sodium chromate, acetate, and hypo-
sulphite, it is concluded that the opacity of the lower
hydrated crystals in contact with the higher hydrate is due
to penetration of crystals of the higher hydrate into the
crystalline network of the lower. There is no evidence for
any change in the proportion of water in the crystals first
formed. Observations on the nature and origin of the
gases which form in volcanic fumaroles or which emerge
from the craters of old volcanoes: Armand Gautier. The
gases from the old crater of Agnano, near Naples, consist
almost entirely of carbon dioxide (96 per cent. to 98 per
cent.), together with traces of methane and a little more
than 1 per cent. of nitrogen. The latter contains argon,
neon, and helium, and possibly the other argon gases.-
The influence of anesthesia on the decomposition of certain
Plants of black
glucosides in plants: L. Guignard.
mustard, submitted to the action of chloroform vapour,
produce the mustard essence; cooling to the temperature
effect.
of boiling methyl chloride produces the
Similar observations have been described by M. Mirande
regarding the formation of hydrocyanic acid.-A hæmo-
gregarian of Pituophis melanoleucus: A. Laveran and
A. Pettit. The neutral carbonates of rubidium and
A thermochemical paper.-
cæsium M. de Forcrand.
:
The theory of functions: Henri Lebesgue. A correction
uniform
of previous paper. The singularities of
analytical functions: D. Pompeiu.-Systems of reservoirs :
Edmond Maillet.-Orthoscopic telescopes: M. Tschern-
Reboul.
ing.-Chemical reactions and ionisation: G.
The apparatus described is capable of measuring ionisation
over a wide range; details are given of the results obtained
in numerous chemical reactions.-Remarks on the preceding
method of separating
A. Gautier,-A
paper:
uranium X, and on the relative activity of this substance.
B. Szilard. The method is based on the addition of ferric
to the
and acetic acid
acetate,
acetate, ammonium
uranium solution, and the precipitation of the iron by
heating; uranium X is concentrated in the precipitate.
-The chemical action of the penetrating rays of radium
Radium rays that
Miroslaw Kernbaum.
had passed through glass decomposed water in accord-
the
with the equation 2H,O=H,O+H,, both
hydrogen and hydrogen peroxide being determined quanti-
tatively. An attempt to obtain a similar reaction by
allowing Rentgen rays to act upon water for 100 hours
gave negative results.-The diffusion of ions through
The passage of ions through
metals: Georges Moreau.
heated plates of platinum, nickel, iron, and brass has been
studied. A theory of the diffusion has been developed, and
an experimental confirmation given.-The action of the
a rays on solid dielectrics: Tcheslas Bialobjeski. A study
of the alteration in the conductivity of sulphur produced
by the rays of polonium.-The hydrolytic decomposition
of bismuth bromide: René Dubrisay. There is only one
bismuth oxybromide produced in this reaction; a rise of
temperature does not appreciably affect the hydrolytic dis-
sociation of bismuth bromide.-A proposed solution for the
equation of condition relating to the calculation of atomic
weights: G. D. Hinrichs. The author points out that
his equation of condition is diametrically opposed to that
given by L. Dubreuil.-The cementation of iron by carbon
in a vacuum: Léon Guillet and Ch. Griffiths.-The
extraction of lutecium from the gadolinite earths: G.
For the final
Urbain, MM. Bourion and Maillard.
purification from thorium and scandium, the oxides were
converted into the chlorides by heating them in the vapour
of sulphur chloride. This method of fractional sublimation
of the chlorides promises to be of service in the separation
of the rare earths.-The condensation of isopropyl alcohoi
with its sodium derivative: formation of methylisobutyi-
carbinol and dimethyl-2 4-heptanol-6 Marcel Guerbet.-
The iso-indogenides: A. Wahl and P. Bagard.-The pro-
duction of peat on the rocks of tropical Africa: Aug.
Chevalier. The ferment of belladonna: C. Gerber.-The
influence exerted by certain vapours on plant cyanogenesis.

on water:

ance

A rapid method for testing plants for hydrocyanic acid
Marcel Mirande. Any cyanogenetic plant, submitted
the action of chloroform vapour, at once gives off hydr
Guignard's picrate paper. The action of urohypotens
cyanic acid. The latter can be detected by the use
སྙ།༣།
on the arterial pressure: J. E. Abelous and E. Bordier.
-The proof of alimentary glycosuria in epileptics:
Florence and Clement.-The hypotensive action of ser
from a dog which had been deprived of its suprare.
capsules: Jean Gautrelet and Louis Thomas. Th
chemical composition of ox bile: N. A. Barbieri.—It
life of yeast after fermentation: E. Kayser and
Demolon. The action of the ultra-violet rays on cider
fermentation: MM. Maurain and Warcollier.-Exper-
mental reproduction of exanthematic typhoid in the ape
Ch. Nicolle.-The chemical effects of immersion in water
of the quartz mercury-vapour lamp: J. Courmont, T
No ozone is produced whic
Nogier, and A. Rochaix.
would account for the observed bactericidal effects, and
other chemical change of importance could be detected -
Symmetry of organs in some species of Syllis: ALL
Michel. The reactions of some mitochondria: E. Fauré
Victor:
Fremiet. The ichthyological fauna of Lake
Roussanof. The earthquake of Provence, June 11, 190n
Jacques Pellegrin.-The Silurian of Nova Zembla: V
Louis Fabry. The earthquake of July 7, 1909: Alfr
Angot.

CONTENTS.

The Dressing of Minerals
Dustless Roads.

Vectorial Graphics

The Reconstructional Anatomy of the Kidney.
R. D. K.

Greeks and Hittites.

By J. G.

Some New Chemical Books. By J. B. C.

Our Book Shelf:

Ladenburg: "Histoire du Développement de la Chimie
depuis Lavoisier jusqu'a nos Jours
für höhere
Schmid: Biologisches Praktikum
Schulen"; Schurig: "Biologische Experimente
nebst einem Anhang mikroskopische Technik
Garrod: "Inborn Errors of Metabolism."-W. D. H.
Stone: "Practical Testing of Gas and Gas-meters'
Clayton: "A Compendium of Food-microscopy"
Letters to the Editor:-

Molecular Scattering and Atmospheric Absorption.-
Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S.

The Fixation of Nitrogen by Soil Bacteria.-A. D.
Hall, F.R.S.

Occasional Unexplained Ringing of House-bells.
Sir Oliver Lodge, F. R.S.

Musical Sands.-Rev. Dr. A. Irving
Wych Elm Seedlings.-Rosamond F. Shove
Popular Natural History. (Illustrated.)
The Adamello Group