at public-house bars and retail counters in workingclass neighbourhoods of London and the principal towns of the United Kingdom, as well as from the booths at fairs and markets in West of Ireland distriets. "There was no evidence of any deleterious substance or adulteration of any kind," remarks the principal chemist. The work done for "other Government departments" covered a very wide range of products. From gold-braid to African coinage; from corditejelly to poisoned trout, almost every conceivable variety of article was submitted for analysis. There is an account of feeding-stuffs sold by a firm of millers, and found to consist wholly of sawdust and gypsum; wherefore the millers were mulcted in heavy penalties. There is a story of "a firm of traders doing a considerable business" who were found practising extensive frauds with postage stamps. Proof of the fraud was given by one of the chemists of the department, first at the Mansion House, and afterwards at the Old Bailey, where the accused persons were duly convicted and sentenced." Glimpses of tragedy also appear here and there. Thus we read about the analysis of the air from an underground chamber in which a post-office employé had been asphyxiated; and about the examination of a paint which gave off certain fumes, and apparently brought about, indirectly, the electrocution of a work man. Foodstuffs, of course, figure largely in the report. As regards imported butter, it would appear that the legal proceedings taken three or four years ago have had a beneficial effect in eliminating much of the adulteration that was then practised. A similar result is also recorded in respect of preservatives in cream. The foregoing are a few examples indicating the nature of the year's work, though not altogether its scope. Questions of brewing and distilling, the use of duty-free alcohol in manufactures, the purity of tobacco, the sale of patent medicines, the efficacy of sheep-dips, the trustworthiness of disinfectants, the materials used in dangerous industries, water supply, and many similar matters were also dealt with, and are duly chronicled in the report. In relinquishing his post, Sir Edward Thorpe can look back upon fifteen years of eminently useful service to the State. Large and conflicting interests are involved in the duties of his department; and to have held the scales evenly between the claims of the public services on the one hand, and the various sections of the trading community on the other, is no mean achievement. One question, however, suggests itself at this juncture. Is it any longer of public utility to retain the present grouping of what are really several laboratories under one head? Looking at what is done in other countries, should not the Board of Agriculture, for example, have its own separate chemical establishment, with a freer hand for investigation and development than is readily practicable under the present conditions? C. S. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT WINNIPEG. SUBJOINED is a synopsis of grants of money appropriated for scientific purposes by the general committee at the Winnipeg meeting. The names of members entitled to call on the general treasurer for the grants are prefixed to the respective research committees. Recommended by Council. Harker, Dr. A.-Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey Watts, Prof. W. W.-Igneous and Associated Sedi- Woodward, Dr. H.-Index Animalium 15 10 6 15 75 5 30 40 70 40 20 25 N N N N N B 25 25 15 Scott, Dr. D. H.-Structure of Fossil Plants Section L.-Education. £ Corresponding Societies Committee. Whitaker, W.-For Preparation of Report 100 Total Gill, Sir D.-Measurement of Arc in South Africa Glazebrook, Dr. R. T.-Electrical Standards Report... 100 5 20 1249 SECTION G. ENGINEERING. OPENING ADDRESS BY SIR W. H. WHITE, K.C.B., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. ON the present occasion, when the meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science are held in the heart of this great Dominion, it is natural that the proceedings of Section G (Engineering) should be largely concerned with the consideration of great engineering enterprises by means of which the resources of Canada have been and are being developed and the needs of its rapidly increasing population met. It will not be inappropriate, therefore, if the Presidential Address is mainly devoted to an illustration of the close connection which exists between the work of civil engineers and the foundation as well as the development of British Colonies and Dominions beyond the seas. British colonies and possessions have started from the sea-front and have gradually pushed inland. Apart from maritime enterprise, therefore, and the possession of shipping, the British Empire could never have been created. An old English toast, once familiar, but which has of late years unfortunately fallen into comparative desuetude, wished success to Ships, Colonies and Commerce. A great truth lies behind the phrase: these three interests are interdependent, and their prosperity means much for both the Mother Country and its offspring. As colonies have been multiplied, their resources developed, and their populations increased, over-sea commerce between them and the Mother Country has been enlarged; greater demands have been made upon shipping for the over-sea transport of passengers, produce and manufactures; there has been a growing necessity for free and uninterrupted communication between widely scattered portions of the Empire, the maintenance of which has depended primarily and still depends on the possession of a supreme war-fleet, under the protection of which peaceful operations of the mercantile marine can proceed in safety, unchecked by foreign interference, but ever ready to meet foreign competition. Now that our colonies have become the homes of new nations it is as true as ever that the maintenance of British supremacy at sea in both the mercantile marine and the war-fleet is essential to the continued existence and prosperity of the Empire. The trackless ocean supplies the cheapest and most convenient means of transport and intercommunication; continuous improvements in shipbuilding and marine engineering have abridged distances and given to sea-passages a regularity and certainty 64 formerly unknown. It is a literal fact that in the British Empire the seas but join the nations they divide." Every triumph of engineering draws closer the links which bind together its several parts. Greater facilities for frequent and rapid interchange of information of what is happening in all sections of the Empire and of knowing each other better should lead, and have led, to increased sympathy and a fuller realisation of common interest in all that affects the well-being of the Empire. Within the last few years the events of the Boer War have given remarkable proofs of the practical interest of the colonies in Imperial concerns and their readiness to share its burdens. The present year will always be remembered as that in which generous offers of assistance from the colonies in the task of strengthening the Royal Navy at a critical period have led to a conference the labours of which should produce important practical results and make our future secure. Organised cooperation between the Mother Country and the Dominions beyond the seas in the maintenance of an Imperial Navy adequate for the protection of vital interests is essential to that security; and, at last, there is a prospect that this end will be attained. While claiming for the shipbuilder and marine engineer an important place in the creation and maintenance of the Empire, it is recognised that the work of other branches of civil engineering has been equally important. The profession of the civil engineer was described in the Charter granted to the parent institution in 1828 as "the art of directing the Great Sources of Power in Nature for the use and convenience of man; as the means of production and of traffic in States both for internal and external trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks, for internal intercourse and exchange; and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses; and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce; and in the construction and adaptation of machinery and in the drainage of cities and towns.' Since this description was penned there have been great and unforeseen developments in many directions, including those relating to improvements in the use of steam, the generation and practical applications of electrical power, the manufacture and extended employment of steel. The main ideas expressed eighty years ago, however, still remain applicable to the beneficent work of the civil engineer. His skill and enterprise, backed by adequate financial provision, are continuously being applied to improve and extend means of production, internal and external means of communication, inland and over-sea navigation, the use of mechanical power and appliances, the acceleration and cheapening of transport, the development and utilisation of natural resources, and the direction of the sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man. One of the chief fields of engineering_operations at the present time is to be found in the Dominion of Canada, the governing authorities of which have appreciated the fact that bold enterprise and generous financial provision for the execution of great engineering works are essential to the progress and prosperity of the country. Its vast extent, its magnificent lakes and rivers, its agricultural and mineral riches, its forests, its unrivalled water-power, and many other potential sources of future wealth and progress, furnish exceptional incentives and opportunities to the engineer. From an early period in the history of Canada this fact has been realised, and attempts have been made to utilise natural advantages; while the same policy has been energetically adopted since the Dominion was established forty-two years ago. It is impossible in this Address even to enumerate the great engineering works which have been accomplished or are in process of execution; and it might be thought impertinent if the attempt were made by one who has only an outside knowledge of the facts. On the other hand, it may be of interest to illustrate by means of Canadian examples the truth of the general statement that civil engineering has exercised and must continue to exercise great influence upon the well-being and development of the British Empire. By the kindness of the High Commissioner of Canada, Lord Strathcona-who has himself done so much for the development of the Dominion, including a great part in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway-the writer has been favoured with official reports and statistics bearing on the subject. These have been freely used in the statement which follows. The subject is so extensive and the time available for this Address so short that it will be necessary to omit detailed reference to important applications of engineering which are necessarily made, under modern conditions, in all great centres of population. Amongst these may be mentioned building construction, sanitation, water supply. heating, lighting, telegraphy, telephony, tramways, electric generating stations and their plant, and gas manufacture. No attempt will be made to deal with the important assistance given by engineers to the operations of agriculture. mining and manufacture, or to the utilisation of the splendid forests of the Dominion, although the demands for machinery and mechanical power are in these respects exceptionally great, owing to the sparseness of the population and the magnitude of the work to be done. Notwithstanding the large immigration and rapid increase of population, these demands will certainly continue and will probably become greater as the area under cultivation is increased, as manufactures are developed, and the natural resources of the country more largely utilised. The example of the United States places this anticipation beyond doubt, and demonstrates the great part which the engineer must continue to play in the development of Canada. Even when the limitations described have been imposed upon the scope of this Address, the field to be traversed is a wide one and without further preface an endeavour will be made to describe a few of the most important services which the engineer has already rendered to the Dominion and will render in the immediate future. Railways. It has well been said that the great problem of to-day in Canada is that of providing ample and cheap transport for her agricultural, mineral, and forest products from the interior to the sea, and so to the markets of the world. Important as inland navigation may be as an aid to this enterprise, it cannot possibly compare with railway development in actual and potential results. Apart from that development the one united Dominion must have remained a dream; thanks to the rapid and efficient intercommunication furnished by railways, widely scattered provinces are knit together in friendly and helpful union, literally by "bonds of steel" which stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and reach farther and farther north each year. Regions which would otherwise have remained inaccessible and unproductive have been turned into new provinces, the fertility and future development of which it is not easy to forecast, and practically impossible to exaggerate. In this department successive administrations (both Federal and provincial) have realised the facts and possibilities of the position, and have given substantial assistance to private enterprise in the execution of great engineering works. Progress in railway development has been remarkable since Federation was accomplished fortytwo years ago. During the preceding thirty years the total railway mileage in operation had been raised to 2278 miles; in 1887 it was 12,184 miles; in 1897, 16,550 miles; in 1907, 22,452 miles. The number of miles of railway actually under construction in 1907 was officially estimated at 3000, exclusive of lines projected but not yet under contract. In 1906, when the lines in operation were 21,353 miles, it was estimated by competent authorities that the railways under construction, and projects for extensions likely to be carried into effect in the immediate future, reached a total of at least 10,000 miles, while probable further extensions of about 3500 miles were under consideration. Further, it was estimated that the capital expenditure required to complete these schemes would be about 60 millions sterling. These figures may need amendment, but there are others representing ascertained facts which equally well illustrate the magnitude of the railway interests of the Dominion.' The total capital invested in Canadian railways in 1907 was officially reported to be about 234.390,000l.; the aid given to railways up to that date by Dominion and Provincial Governments, and by municipalities, considerably exceeded 36,000,000l. sterling in money; the land grants from the Dominion Government approached 32 million acres, while the Provincial Governments of Quebec, British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia had granted about 20 million acres. The Governments have also guaranteed the bonds of railway companies to the extent of many millions of dollars. The capitalisation per mile of railway lines owned by the Governments (amounting to 1890 miles) is reported as being 11,400l.; this is practically the same amount as that for Indian railways, that for the United States being 13,600l., and for New South Wales and Victoria about 12,600l. For British railways the figure given is 54,700l. per mile. The freight carried by Canadian railways in 1907 amounted to nearly 63,900,000 tons (of 2000 lb.), which included about 14,000,000 tons of coal and coke, nearly 4,500,000 tons of ores and minerals, 10,250,000 tons of lumber and other forest products, nearly 7,900,000 tons of manufactures, and 2,309,000 tons of merchandise. In 1875, when 4800 miles of railway were in operation, the corresponding freight-tonnage was 5,670,000 tons; so that while the length of railway increased nearly 4.7 times, the tonnage increased nearly 11.3 times. During the same period passengers increased from 5,190,000 to 32,137,000. For twenty-eight railways making returns the average revenue per passenger per mile was 2-232 cents, and for the four principal railways was 2.07 cents. For freight fifty-nine railways showed an average rate of 2.328 cents per tonmile, and for the five principal railways it was 0.702 cent per ton-mile. The average distance travelled by Canada has therefore the highest mileage measured against population, and the lowest against territory. The earliest great railway system of Canada, the Grand Trunk, had its beginnings in 1845; in 1907 it was working about 3600 miles within the Dominion. In association with the Government it is now engaged on the construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific Line, which will cross the Continent wholly in Canadian territory, and have a length of 3600 miles, exclusive of branches. The story of the Canadian Pacific Railway is well known, and need not be repeated; the influence which its existence and working have had upon the prosperity of the Dominion has been enormous and beneficial since its opening in 1885, and experience of its effect has led to the promotion of other Trans-Continental lines. In June, 1907, the total length in operation was nearly 9000 miles, and the company owned in addition great lines of steamships employed on Atlantic and Pacific services. The Canadian Northern Railway system represents one of the most striking examples of recent railway development in the Dominion. In 1907 it was working nearly 2600 miles in the North-Western provinces, about 150 miles in Ontario, 500 miles in the Province of Quebec, and 430 miles in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, making a total of nearly 3700 miles. In 1908 its mileage on the main system was reported to have increased to nearly 3400 miles, and the total length in operation had become 4800 miles. The North-Western Provinces have given substantial assistance to this great system, and its promoters are said to aim at a complete Trans-Continental route, as well as the development of railway communication to Hudson's Bay and the establishment of a line of steamships therefrom to Great Britain. Besides these three great railway organisations, which in 1907 controlled about 75 per cent. of the mileage in operation, there are a large number of smaller companies, making up a total of about 80. Their total earnings in 1907 amounted to 20.350,000l., the total working expenses being 20,750,000l. Earnings from freight service were (in round figures) 19,000,000l. ; from passenger service, 7,837,000l.; from express services, 655,000l.; from mails, 325,000l., the balance coming from miscellaneous items. The total number of persons employed by the railways was 124,000; their salaries and wages amounted to 11,750,000l. It was officially estimated that if to the railway employees were added persons employed in factories for rolling stock and railway materials, as well as those engaged in the casual service and shipping, with an allowance for their families, "quite 25 per cent. of the population win their daily bread from the carrying trade" of the Dominion. The equipment of the Canadian railways in 1907 included 3504 locomotives, 3642 passenger cars, and 113,514 freight cars. In the opinion of the official reporter on railway statistics, based chiefly on a comparison of the proportion of rolling stock to mileage in Canada and the United States, a considerable increase of rolling stock is required, and there is a possibility of greater efficiency being obtained in the utilisation of existing freight cars. a The manufac 1 Most of these statistics are taken from the valuable Report for 1907, presented to the Minister of Railways and Canals by Mr. Butler, Deputy Minister and Chief Engineer of the Department. turing resources of the Dominion are declared to be fully capable of meeting all requirements, as in 1907 they produced 227 locomotives, 397 passenger cars, and 13,350 freight cars. A reduction of grades and curvatures has been carried out on the principal railways in recent years, and this has permitted the hauling of heavier loads. It is estimated that in 1907 the average earnings per ton of freight hauled were 1.472 dollars, and the average earnings per passenger carried were 1.219 dollars. The earnings per train mile were 1.953 dollars, and the working expenses 1.381 dollars. The total earnings per mile of railway were 6535-64 dollars, and the working expenses were 4620-9 dollars. The working expenses were divided as follows in the official report : Maintenance of way and structures equipment ... Per cent. ... was in Canadian vessels. The Soulanges Canal is fourteen miles long, with a rise of 84 feet effected in four locks. Commenced in 1892, it was opened for traffic in 1899, and cost nearly 1,400,000l. The Lachine Canal was commenced in 1821, enlarged in 1843 and 1873, and, as com. pleted in 1901, is 8 miles long, has 45 feet rise, effected in five locks, and has cost from first to last about 2,300,000l. In the construction of this great waterway many difficult engineering problems have been solved, and every modern improvement has been introduced; electricity has been utilised in its equipment, both for power and lighting, so that navigation can proceed by night as well as by day. For the years 1903-7 the canals were declared free of tolls; but it is estimated officially that if tolls on the ordinary scale had been collected the revenue for 1907 would have exceeded 91,000l. In these five years the water-borne traffic of the Dominion increased from 9,204,000 tons in 1903 to 20,544,000 tons in 1907; in the same period the increase in Canadian railway traffic was from 47.373,000 tons to 63,866,000 tons. The official reporter justly remarks that these results are exceedingly encouraging." It was recognised long ago that the utilisation of the waterways of Canada from the Great Lakes to the sea would yield considerable advantages by facilitating cheap transport of agricultural products of the fertile regions from the great North-West, but the Canadian portions of that territory were then regarded as a great lone land." Subsequent developments of the corn-growing regions of Canada have emphasised the value of the water route and its great potentialities. In his "History of Merchant Shipping" (published 1876) Lindsay dwelt upon this point, and foresaw that if the waterways of Canada were made continuously navigable a struggle for supremacy in oversea trade must arise between New York and the Canadian ports of Montreal and Quebec. This struggle is now in full force, so far as the grain trade is concerned, and it is likely to grow keener. The quantity of grain passed down the whole length of the St. Lawrence navigation to Montreal increased from about 450,000 tons in 1906 to 685,000 tons in 1907, while the quantity carried to Montreal by the Canadian Pacific Railway was about 387,000 tons for 1906 and 384,000 tons for 1907. On the other hand, the quantity carried by canals in the United States to New York fell from 294,500 tons in 1906 to 230,800 tons in 1907. 66 An important addition to the Canadian canal system has been proposed, and its execution will probably be undertaken when great works now in progress have been completed. This route extends from Georgian Bay on Lake Huron to the St. Lawrence, and would utilise Lake Nipissing as well as the French and Ottawa rivers. The distance to be traversed would be 450 miles, less than that of the present all-water route. On the basis of careful surveys it has been estimated that a canal having 20 feet depth of water could be constructed at a cost of twelve millions sterling, upon which capital a reasonable dividend could be paid, even if the charges made for transport were one-third less than the lowest rates of freight possible on United States routes to New York. It would, of course, be most advantageous to have the available depth of water increased from 14 to 20 feet, thus making possible the employment of larger and deeper draught vessels between the Lakes and Montreal. Considerable economies in the ratio of working expenses to freight earnings would be effected, break of bulk in transit to the sea would be avoided, and the cost of transport greatly reduced. The most important system of inland navigation which Canada possesses is primarily due to the existence of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River; but the utilisation of these natural advantages and the construction of a continuous navigable channel from the sea to the head of Lake Superior is due to the work of engineers. The importance of such a navigable waterway leading to the heart of the Dominion was recognised long ago by the Government. The first canal is said to have been opened in 1821, and from that time onwards the canal system has been developed, but the greatest progress has been made during the last forty years under successive Administrations. Up to March 31, 1907, the capital expenditure on Canadian canals, exclusive of outlay by the Imperial Government, has approached 18,350,000l. sterling, of which more than ten millions have been spent on enlargements. Besides minor canal systems, many of which are important, a great "trunk system of water-transit has been created from Montreal to Port Arthur, at the head of Lake Superior, this all-water route being nearly 1300 miles in length, having a minimum depth of water of 14 feet and effecting a total vertical rise of about 600 feet from tidal water in the St. Lawrence to Lake Superior. In order to effect this rise forty-nine locks are provided, most of which are 270 feet long and 45 feet wide, enabling vessels 255 feet long to be accommodated. Out of the total length of more than 1200 miles, only 73 miles consist of artificial channels. The Welland Canal, connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario with a total rise from lake to lake of 327 feet, effected in twenty-five locks-is 263 miles long. This canal dates from 1824; its enlargement to present dimensions was begun in 1872, and occupied fifteen years; the total expenditure on the canal has been nearly five and a half millions sterling. Another important section of the waterway is the Sault Ste. Marie Canal-about 6000 feet in The magnitude of the grain trade and its growth may length and from 142 to 150 feet wide between the pier- be illustrated by the following figures for recent years :ends, with a lock 900 feet long, 60 feet wide, having In 1897 the grain cargoes passed down the Welland Canal 20 feet of water over the sills. The difference of level to the ports of Kingston and Prescott numbered 377. and between Lakes Superior and Huron is 18 feet. Commenced represented 515,000 tons; for 1907 the corresponding in 1888, the Sault Ste. Marie Canal was opened for traffic figures were 518 cargoes, weighing 841,000 tons. As to in 1895, the cost being about 930,000l. Like its pre- the elevators and mechanical appliances for handling decessor on the United States side of St. Mary's River-economically these huge quantities of grain, nothing can the so-called "Soo" Canal affords free passage for the ships of both countries. In 1898 about two and threequarter millions represented the tonnage of vessels passing through the Canadian Canal, and of this total about 403,000 tons was in Canadian vessels. In 1907 the total tonnage had risen to 12,176.000 tons, of which 2,288,000 be said here, although they involve the solution of many difficult engineering problems and have been greatly simplified and improved as experience has been gained. The bulk of the canal traffic, of course, moves eastwards and outwards from the interior provinces. For example, of the total quantity of freight (1,604,321 tons) passed through the whole length of the Welland Canal in 1907, about 75 per cent. moved eastwards, and more than 62 per cent. of the 2,100,000 tons which passed through the St. Lawrence canals moved in the same direction. Shipping on the Great Lakes. Canadian shipping and shipbuilding on the Lakes have made considerable progress in recent years, although they do not rival those of the United States. According to authoritative stateinents there were not twenty Canadian steamers engaged in the transport of grain fifteen years ago; only three of these were steel-built, and the largest carried only 90,000 bushels. The total carrying capacity of Canadian grain-carriers at the present time has been estimated at ten million bushels, and the capital invested in the fleet is said to be about three millions sterling. Between the harvest and the close of navigation in winter it is estimated that no fewer than sixty million bushels of grain can be moved from port to port in Canadian steamers. Many special engineering features have been introduced into the structures and equipment of these Lake graincarriers. They are really huge steel barges of full form, of uniform cross-section for a considerable portion of their length; and they possess enormous cargo capacity, moderate engine power and speed, with structures of a simple nature which can be largely standardised and made to resemble bridge-construction rather than ordinary shipbuilding. They can be built in a short time, the largest vessels occupying about four months in construction. In this way the cost of construction is cheapened, but the rates for labour and materials prevailing in the Lake shipyards are so high relatively to British costs that at present these grain-carriers are said to cost about 40 per cent. more (per ton dead weight carried) than the cost of ordinary tramp steamers built in Great Britain. Their holds and hatchways are arranged so as to facilitate the rapid shipment and discharge of cargoes. At their ports of call special mechanical appliances are provided for dealing with cargoes, most of which consist of grain, ore, or coal. In the design and construction of these cargo-handling appliances the mechanical engineer has displayed great ingenuity, and the results obtained in rate of shipment and discharge of cargoes of grain, ore, and coal are remarkable. Cases are on record where vessels carrying 7000 tons dead weight have been loaded in four hours and discharged in ten hours; more than 5000 tons of ore have been discharged in about four hours. The draught of water of the steamers must be kept within moderate limits and the breadths of the locks are moderate, so that increase in carrying power must be chiefly obtained by increase in length; consequently, as individual cargoes are increased, a greater number of lifting appliances can be brought to bear simultaneously, and the rate of loading or discharge can be maintained or accelerated. 66 The season of navigation extends over only seven eight months in the year; consequently, quick despatch is essential to success. A large vessel of this class has the following approximate dimensions :-Length, about 600 feet; breadth, 58 to 60 feet; depth, 32 feet; draught of water, 19 to 19 feet when carrying 10,000 to 11,000 tons of cargo; corresponding displacement, 16,000 tons. The engines of such a ship develop about 2000 horse-power, and drive her at eleven to twelve statute miles per hour in fair weather. The large size and moderate speed result in very economical conditions of working, and the freight rates are exceedingly low. From official returns it appears that for these dead-weight cargoes the freight per ton mile across the Lakes is from 0-04 to 0.05 of a penny per ton mile, the corresponding railway rate being about ten times that amount. The multiplication of this type of vessel on the great Lakes is a proof that it satisfactorily fulfils the conditions of service. Similar vessels would not be well adapted for ocean work, which demands greater structural strength, different proportions, and a more liberal equipment; but shipbuilders generally may benefit from a study of the Lake steamers. The greater portion of the traffic on the Lakes passes through the "Soo" canals. The voyages are comparatively short, the average length of the trip being about 840 miles. Consequently, individual vessels make several passages during the season when navigation is open, and the total number of passages as well as the total aggregate tonnage of the ships reaches very high figures. In the season of 1907, for example, when the canals were open less than 240 days, 20,440 vessels (counting as a vessel each passage), with an aggregate registered tonnage exceeding 44 million tons, passed through the United States and Canadian canals at the Soo. The aggregate freight tonnage carried exceeded 58 million tons; the weight of coal approached 11 million tons; the iron ore carried weighed 39,600,000 tons; and the grain transported amounted to 136 million bushels. The conditions of the Suez Canal are, of course, entirely different, as vessels passing through are engaged on long voyages, and individual ships make few passages in the year. On the other hand, Suez Canal traffic proceeds uninterruptedly throughout the year, while the Soo canals are closed during the winter months. Subject to these differences in working conditions, it may be of interest to state that in 1907 4267 vessels of 14,728,000 tons passed through the Suez Canal, and paid transit dues which amounted to 4,460,000l.; whereas the passage of the "Soo" canals was free. The St. Lawrence Ship Channel. Closely allied with the waterway from Montreal to Lake Superior is the improvement of the channel of the St. Lawrence from Montreal to Quebec and beyond towards the sea. From the Straits of Belleisle to Montreal the distance is 986 miles; from Quebec to Montreal it is 160 miles. Formerly the minimum depth of water between Quebec and Montreal prevented the passage of vessels drawing more than 10 to 12 feet during the greater part of the season of navigation. In 1826 the question of deepening the river channel was raised; in 1844 the work was begun, but was abandoned three years later; in 1851 it was resumed, and has since been continued. In 1869 the minimum depth of the channel at low water was increased to 20 feet, in 1882 it was 25 feet; in 1888 27 feet for 108 miles from Montreal to a point within tidal influence. A channel having a minimum width of 450 feet, and 550 to 750 feet wide at the bends, with a minimum depth of 30 feet, was completed in 1906 from Montreal to tide water at Batiscan. Certain work remains to be done between this point and Quebec in order to complete the project adopted in 1889 and amended in 1906, but it is anticipated this will be finished in about four years. Below Quebec the channel is 1000 feet wide. When once dredged it is stated that the channel remains permanent. Accidents in the channel are few. The Superintending Engineer in his Report of July, 1908, indicates the magnitude of the work done by comparisons with the Suez and Panama Canals, the figures standing as follow: St. Lawrence Channel. 2201 30 Feet 100 (bottom) 200 (min.) 1500 (max.) J 80,000,000 450 (min.) 1000 (max.)} 70,000,000 In 1844 the largest vessels navigating the St. Lawrence to Montreal were of 500 tons; now the Virginian and Victorian of the Allan Line (12,000 tons), and the Laurentic and Megantic of the White Star Line (15,000 tons), proceed to that port, and have made the passage from Quebec in less than ten hours. Ordinarily, this passage occupies eleven to twelve hours, the return passage being made in nine to ten hours. In the execution of these great works a specially designed dredging plant, including several types, has been employed, and works about seven months in the year; and the rock dredging and blasting in the section below Quebec has involved great difficulty. The total amount of rock to be removed amounted to 1,700,000 cubic yards, extending over nearly three miles, and the whole bottom was covered with huge boulders, some of which were 30 to 40 tons in weight. These great masses had to be lifted before blasting and dredging was done. During the fiscal 1 Length of channel requiring improvement demands dredging and excavation over a length of about 70 miles. |