Imitative Effects of Letter-Sounds corresponding to Aspirate
Quality, representing Serpents, Sighing, Rapidity, Winds, Slumber,
Conspiracy, Fear, Frightening, Checking, 136-Guttural Quality,
representing Grating, Forcing, Flowing Water, Rattling, Effort,
139-Pectoral Quality, representing Groaning, Depth, Hollowness,
142-Pure Quality, representing Thinness, Clearness, Sharpness,
Cutting, 143-Orotund Quality, representing Fulness, Roundness,
Murmuring, Humming, Denying, etc., 143-These Effects as com-
bined in Various Illustrations of Carving; Dashing, Rippling, and
Lapping Water; Roaring, Clashing, Cursing, Shrieking, Fluttering,
Crawling, Confusion, Horror, Spite, Scorn, etc., 145.
Verse in which Attention to Sound prevents Representation of
Thought, 150-Violating Laws of Natural Expression or Gram-
matical Construction, 151-Excellences exaggerated, the Sources of
these Faults, 152-Insertion of Words, Pleonasm, Superfluity, 152
-Transposition of Words, Inversion, Hyperbaton, tending to
Obscurity, 154-Style of the Age of Dryden, 156-Alteration of
Words in Accent; or by Apheresis, Front-Cut; Syncope, Mid-
Cut; or Apocope, End-Cut, 157-All these often show Slovenly
Workmanship, 158.
Instinctive Ejaculatory Sounds, and Reflective Imitative Sounds,
becoming words by Agreement, in Fulfilment of the Principle of
Association or Comparison, can represent but a few Ideas, 173-
Other needed Words may be due to Agreement in using Arbitrary
Symbols; it is Philosophical to suppose them largely developed by
Tendencies underlying the Formation of Primitive Words, 174—
How these Tendencies lead to the Use of the same Word in Dif-
ferent Senses, 175-In the case of Words whose Meanings depend
on Association, 175-How what refers to the Material comes to
refer to the Immaterial, 176-Words whose Meanings depend on
Comparison, 176—What refers to the Material is by Comparison
used for the Immaterial, 177-Great Varieties of Meanings are
developed from the same Word by Continued Processes of Associa-
tion and Comparison, 178—A Knowledge of this fact, and its
Results are Necessary to an Intelligent Use of Language, 179.
MEANINGS OF PHRASES AS DETERMINED BY ASSOCIA-
TION OR COMPARISON
Language, a Process in which Words and Ideas represented by
them are used consecutively, 180-How Words in Progression can
represent Mental Processes, 180-How Acts in Progression do this
in Pantomime and how this is done when Words, as Symbols, are
substituted for the Acts in Pantomime, 181-How Subject, Predi-
cate, and Object are put together, 182,—Subject, Predicate, and
Object of a Complete Sentence, are the Beginning, Middle, and
End of a Complete Process, of which all the Parts of Speech are
Logical Parts, 183-Examination of Certain Sentences, 183-
How the Meanings of them, considered as Wholes, depend on the
Principle of Association or of Comparison, 184
at first, to interpret them, but after being used become Conven-
tional, 187-This the Natural Tendency of all Words, 188-
Poets can always cause Words to seem Poetic; First, by selecting
those representing Poetic Associations, 188-This applies to Con-
ventional Words, 189-Second, by arranging Words imaginatively
so as to suggest New Comparisons or Pictures, 190-Why English
of Anglo-Saxon Origin is preferred by our Poets, 190-Have
Familiar Associations, 191-Sounds fit Sense, 191-Are used by us
in Different Senses, 192–Figures represented in Compound Words
Apparent, 192-In general more Significant, 193—Why the Eng-
lish Language is fitted to remain Poetic, 194.
Two Kinds of Language used in Poetry, that depending for its
Meaning on Association and that depending on Comparison, 195
-Distinction between the Term Figurative Language, as applied
to Poetry and as used in ordinary Rhetoric, 195-Figures of
Rhetoric containing no Representative Pictures: Interjection, In-
terrogation, Apostrophe, Vision, Apophasis, Irony, Antithesis,
Climax, 196-Figures of Rhetoric necessitating Representative
Language: Onomatopoeia, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Trope, Simile,
Metaphor, Hyperbole, Allegory, 197-Laws to be observed, and
Faults to be avoided, in using Similes and Metaphors, 200-When
Plain Language should be used, 203—And when Figurative, 206.
PROSE AND POETRY; PRESENTATION AND REPRE-
SENTATION IN ITS VARIOUS FORMS
Tendencies of Plain Language toward Prose, and of Figurative
toward Poetry, 208-Plain Language tends to present Thought,
209-Figurative to represent it, 209-All Art Representative, 210
-But Plain Language may represent, and Figurative may present,
210-Poetic Representation depends upon the Character of the
Thought, 211-If a Poet thinks of Pictures, Plain Language de-
scribing them will represent according to the Method of Direct
Representation, 211-If not of Pictures, he may illustrate his
Theme by thinking in Pictures, and use Figurative Language
In what Sense, and how far, Thought and Feeling can be Com-
municated Representatively, 213-Pure Representation, as used
by Tennyson, 214—Hunt, etc., 215-Pure Direct Representation,
as used by Homer, Milton, Shakespear, Morris, Heine, Tennyson,
Arnold, Burns, Gilbert, etc., 216-Extensive Use of this Method
in all Forms of Poetry, 220.
PURE INDIRECT OR ILLUSTRATIVE REPRESENTATION, 225-239
Illustrative in Connection with Direct Representation enables a
writer to express almost any Phase of Thought representatively or
poetically, 225; Examples, 226-Representation, if Direct, must
communicate mainly what can he seen or heard, 228-Inward
Mental Processes can be pictured outwardly and materially only by
Indirect Representation, 228-Examples of this Fact from Long-
fellow, from Arnold, from Whittier, from Smith, from Tennyson,
Aldrich, and Bryant, 229-Two Motives in using Language, corre-
sponding respectively to those underlying Discoursive and Dramatic
Elocution, namely that tending to the Expression of what is within
the Mind, and that tending to the Description of what is without
the Mind, 230-Examples from Longfellow of Poetry giving form
to these two different Motives, 231-Careful Analysis might give us
here, besides Indirect or Figurative Representation used for the
purpose of Expression, the same used for the purpose of Descrip-
tion, but as in Rhetoric and Practice Expressional and Descriptive
Illustration follow the same Laws, both will be treated here as Il-
lustrative Representation, 231-Similes, ancient and modern, from
Homer, from Morris, from Milton, from Shakespear, from Moore,
from Kingsley, 232-Metaphors, ancient and modern, 235-Used
in Cases of Excitation; Examples, 237.
PURE REPRESENTATION IN THE POETRY OF HOMER, 240-261
How the Phenomena of Nature should be used in Representation
-Homer as a Model, 240-His Descriptions are Mental, Fragmen-
tary, Specific, Typical, 241-The Descriptions of Lytton, Goethe,
Morris, Southey, etc,, 244.-Homer's Descriptions are also Progres-
sive; Examples, 251-Dramatic Poems should show the same
Traits, 259-Homer's Illustrative Representation, 260.
Alloy introduces Unpoetic Elements into Verse, 262-All Classic
Representation Pure, 263-Tendencies in Poetic Composition lead-
ing to Alloyed Representation, 264-In Direct Representation, 264
-In Illustrative Representation, 265-Lawful to enlarge by Illus-
trations an Idea Great and Complex, 265—Or Small and Simple,
266-Descriptions of a Meal, 269-Sunset, 270-Peasant, 271-
Sailor, 272-How these Tendencies may introduce Alloy that does
not represent, 273-Exaggerations in Love-Scenes, 274-In De-
scriptions of Natural Scenery, etc., 276-In Allegorical Poems
and Sensational Plays, 276.
EXPLANATORY ALLOY IN DIRECT REPRESENTATION, 278-292
Alloy, if carrying to Extreme the Tendency in Plain Language,
becomes Didactic; if the Tendency in Figurative Language, it
becomes Ornate, 278-Didactic Alloy explains and appeals to the
Elaborative Faculty, not the Imagination, 279-Rhetoric instead
of Poetry, 279-Examples of Didactic Alloy where Representa-
tion purports to be Direct in Cases where the Thought is Philosoph-
ical, 280-How Thought of the Same Kind can be expressed Poet-
ically, 281-In Cases where the Thought is Picturesque, as in
Descriptions of Natural Scenery, 284-How Similar Scenes can be
described Poetically, 285-Didactic Descriptions of Persons, 288-
Similar Representative Descriptions, 289-How Illustrative Repre-
sentation helps the Appeal to the Imagination, 289-In Descrip-
tions of Natural Scenery and of Persons, 290-The Sensuous and
the Sensual, 292.
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