day even among the so-called learned classes, is well evidenced by the two extracts from the thirteenth-century Encyclopædia of Bartholomew Anglius (77 a-b), relating to the chemical elements and the movements of the planets. That this book continued to be translated into the vernaculars, and to be reissued for three centuries after its first compilation, tells much as to the need it met and filled. The selection from Cott, listing a tenth-century schoolmaster's books (78), is also interesting as showing the meager library, both in number of volumes and scope of subjectmatter, of a scholar of the time.

The struggle of the Church to enforce law and order during this period was a long and a difficult one. One of the means tried was that of the proclamation of a Truce of God. One of the earliest of these, declaring three bloodless days a week, is reproduced (79). Another means was the adoption and sanctification of chivalry, which was used to refine and civilize the barbarian nobility. A good description of such utilization of chivalry by the Church is given in the selection reproduced from Gautier (80). For the peasant and serf the educational influence of the Church was exercised largely through its services, a good description of which is given by Draper (81).

Toward the latter part of the darkest period of the Middle Ages the Church, having established itself as the master, and seeing that the tide was turning, began to exercise a mild pressure for some form of education for certain of the sons of freemen. A good example of this is reproduced from the Statutes of Winchester Diocese, in England (82). The Church also evolved a supervisory system for the schools it had created, under a supervising principal (Scholasticus; Precentor), and with teachers' licenses (83), legal forms for appointment (84 a), and oaths of office (84 b) to be subscribed to before entering upon the duties of a position. These forms are the precursors of the teacher's certificate, notice of appointment, and contract of to-day.

70. Song and Grammar Schools in England

(Leach, A. F., The Schools of Medieval England, p. 6. London, 1915) The writer from whom the following selection is taken is a foremost English authority on the history of early education in England. Of the song and grammar schools he writes:

These Song Schools became even more general than the Grammar Schools. The Song School at Rochester is expressly mentioned by Bede in Theodore's time as being derived from Canterbury. Putta, whom Archbishop Theodore found at Rochester, and made bishop

FIG. 12. INTERIOR OF A NORMAN SCHOOL, TWELFTH CENTURY
(After Wright, Homes of Other Days, p. 130)

In the original cut the bench on which the scholars are seated forms a complete circle. To the left are two writers, while to the right is the teacher, who seems to be lecturing. In the center is the teacher's desk

there, is described "as well instructed in ecclesiastical learning, . . . and especially skilled in the art of chanting in church after the Roman fashion, which he had learnt from the pupils of the blessed Pope Gregory himself." This Putta, when Rochester was ravaged by the King of Mercia in 675, settled down as a simple parish priest in Mercia and went about "teaching church singing (ecclesiæ carmina) wherever he was asked."

The twin schools of Grammar and Song, which have often been confounded as if they were one school, are found side by side in connexion with all the great churches, that is in all the great centers of population, from the age of Augustine and Ethelbert to the age of Cranmer and Edward VI, as distinct foundations, completely differentiated in function as they were in their teaching, and generally in their government. In small places they were sometimes united under one master. Though as late as 1519 a school-author, who had been Headmaster first of Eton and then of Winchester, William Horman, asserted in echo of Quintilian, himself copying the Greeks, that, without a knowledge of music, grammar cannot be perfect, yet the teaching of singing and music, so

often rashly asserted to be the main work of the pre-Reformation school, and the Song Schools which gave it, were always subordinate and secondary to the teaching of Grammar and the Grammar School. To a large extent the Song Schools performed the function of Elementary Schools, while the Grammar Schools were the Secondary Schools, and, before the days of Universities, gave university or higher education as well.

71. The Episcopal and Monastic Schools

(Mullinger, J. B., The Schools of Charles the Great, pp. 130-33. London, 1877)

The first study of any importance in English of the work of Charlemagne and Alcuin was the one from which the following selection is taken, a book now difficult to obtain. Mr. Mullinger here contrasts the work of the episcopal and monastic schools, and throws much light on educational conditions during the early mediæval period.

From this time (817), we are accordingly able to distinguish, with somewhat more precision, the different training of the monastic and episcopal schools. Of the latter, indeed, throughout the ninth century, it is impossible to give much more than a conjectural account, as there existed no systematic organization. Léon Maître, in his endeavor to supply the want, presents us with a series of confused gleanings, the greater part of which apply evidently to the schools of the monasteries. Close to the cathedral precincts, and under the immediate supervision of the bishop, a school for boys, all destined to become priests, was confided to the care of one of the canons, known from his office as the scholasticus. ...

The education provided in these schools may be described as a kind of minor to the Benedictine major. In the range of subjects it probably went little beyond the teaching of the schools of Cassian, but its method was more careful and efficient. We may picture to ourselves a group of lads seated on the floor, which was strewn with clean straw, their waxen tablets in their hands, and busily engaged in noting down the words read by the scholasticus from his manuscript volume. So rarely did the pupil, in those days, gain access to a book, that to read (legere) became synonymous with to teach. The scholars traced the words on their tablets, and afterwards, when their notes had been corrected by the master, transferred them to a little parchment volume, the treasured depository, with many, of nearly all the learning they managed to acquire in life. We have already investigated the probable extent and character of that learning, and it may safely be assumed that in the cathedral school the customary limits were seldom passed. In the ninth century, at least, only two examples of Church education in

Frankland stand forth as examples of a higher culture - the one, that at Orleans, under Theodulfus; the other, that at Rheims.

The lively interest taken by Theodulfus in everything that related to the education of his day is attested by numerous facts, . . . Ably seconded by the poet Wulfin, Theodulfus raised the school at Orleans to considerable eminence. It became especially famous for the number, beauty, and accuracy of its

FIG. 13. A SCHOOL OF MENDICANT MONKS (After a miniature of manuscript No. 21,252 in the Burgundy Library, Brussels. The miniature dates from the early fifteenth century)

ing and illustrious as a parent foundation. It disappears beneath the waves of the Norman invasion; but its namesake, New Corbey, in Saxony, sustained with equal reputation, and more auspicious fortunes, the scholarly traditions of the age. The great abbey of Saint Riquier, under the rule of Angilbert, rivalled the school at Rheims in literary activity; and an inventory of its possessions, made in the year 831 by the direction of Lewis the Pious, included a library of no less than 231

volumes. The abbey of Saint Martin at Metz, under the rule of Aldricus, was scarcely less celebrated; a Bible presented by its monks to Charles the Bald and the missal of Bishop Drogo are still preserved, and rank among the most valued specimens of ninth-century art. The society of Saint Mihiel-sur-Meuse enjoyed the instruction of Smaragdus, whose compend from Donatus frequently appears in the catalogues of the libraries of the period. Saint Bertin, in the diocese of Cambrai, laid claim to the distinguished honour of having educated Grimbald, King Alfred's able seconder in his efforts toward a restoration of learning in England. At Ferrières, in the Gâtinais, the genius. of Lupus Servatus shone forth in the troublous and disheartening period which immediately preceded and followed upon the division of the empire.

The South and South-West present fewer evidences of culture; and in the ninth century no foundation, either in Normandy or Brittany, can be said to have reached celebrity; while in Aquitaine, if we except the labours of Benedict of Aniane in the diocese of Montpellier, the efforts of Lewis the Pious on behalf of his patrimonial kingdom seem to have been baffled by the frequent recurrence of war.

72. The School at Salisbury Cathedral

(As provided for in the Foundation Statutes of the Cathedral, of 1091 A.D.; trans. by A. F. Leach)

This extract from the Cathedral Statutes outlines the duties of the different church officers, and particularly sets forth the authority of the Precentor and Schoolmaster connected therewith.

The Institution of Osmund

These are the dignities and customs of the church of Salisbury, which I, Osmund, bishop of that church, in the name of the Holy Trinity, in the year of our Lord 1091, established and granted to the persons and canons of the same church, with the advice of the lords, the archbishop and other my co-bishops whose names are subscribed, and with the assent of the lord King William; namely, that Dean and Chanter, Chancellor and Treasurer shall be continually resident in the church at Salisbury, without any kind of excuse. . . . Nothing can excuse the canons from being personally resident in the church of Salisbury, except attendance at the schools and the service of the lord King, who can have one in his chapel, and the archbishop one, and the bishop three. The dean presided over all canons and vicars as regards the cure of souls and correction of conduct.

The precentor ought to rule the choir as to chanting and can raise or lower the chant.

The treasurer is pre-eminent in keeping the treasures and ornaments