understood as applying only in the case when the tares cannot be destroyed, without destroying the wheat at the same time, as has been said in the preceding question, art. 8, argument 1, when we treated of heretics in common with infidels. (26 Henry VIII, c. 1, 1534, Statutes of the Realm, III, p. 492) The following act passed by the English Parliament, in 1534, definitely severed England from Rome, and established the King as the head of the English Church. It illustrates the parliamentary side of the Reformation. An Act concernynge the Kynges Highnes to be supreme heed of the Churche of Englande and to have auctoryte to reforme and redresse all errours, heresyes and abuses yn the same. Albeit the Kynges Majestie justely and rightfully is and oweth to be the supreme heed of the Churche of Englande, and so is recognysed by the clergy of this Realme in theyr convocacions; yet neverthelesse for corroboracion and confirmacion thereof, and for increase of vertue in Cristis Religion within this Realme of England, and to represse and extirpe all errours, heresies and other enormyties and abuses heretofore used in the same. Be it enacted by auctority of this present Parliament that the Kyng our Soveraign Lorde, his heires and successours Kynges of this Realme shall be takyn, acceptyed, and reputed the onely supreme heed in erthe of the Churche of England callyd Anglicana Ecclesia, and shall have and enjoye annexed and unyted to the Ymperyall Crowne of this Realme as well the title and style thereof, as all Honours Dignyties prehemynences jurisdiccions privileges auctorities ymunyties profitis and commodities to the said dignyties of supreme heed of the same Churche belongyng and apperteyning: And that our said Soveraigne Lorde his heires and successours Kynges of this Realme shall have full power and auctorite from tyme to tyme to visite represse redresse reforme order correct restrayne and amende all suche errours heresies abuses offences contempts and enormyties whatsoever they be whiche by any maner spirituall auctoryte or juristiccion ought or maie lawfullye be reformyd repressyd ordred redressyd correctyd restrayned or amendyd, most to the pleasure of almyghtie God the increase of vertue yn Chrystis Religion and for the conservacy of the peace unyte and tranquylyte of this Realme: Any usage custome foreyne laws foreyne auctoryte prescripcion or anye other thinge or thinges to the contrarie hereof notwithstandinge. CHAPTER XIII EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS I. LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS THE Readings in this chapter illustrate the development of Protestant education among the Lutherans and Anglicans. The first selection, from Rashdall (154), deals with the diffusion of education in later mediæval times, from which we may infer something as to the effect of the Reformation on educational institutions. The selection on the literary style of the different translations of the Bible (155), contrasting these with the Ciceronian, is an interesting explanation of the hold which these vernacular translations obtained from the first. The extract from Luther's long address (156) is quite typical of the whole, and reveals his belief in the importance of the higher classical schools, when properly reformed, as a means for training learned ministers for the churches. Luther saw very clearly the need for teachers and preachers, and sets forth plainly the importance of the teacher's work (157). He even advances very modern arguments for the compulsory attendance of children at school (158). Having abolished the old Church of Rome régime, it was necessary that the Lutherans reorganize the churches under the new form of worship, and for this some outline or form was necessary. These were supplied by the so-called Kirchenordnungen, worked out for the churches by Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen. An example of these is given in 159, from which their comprehensive nature may be discerned. The schools also needed reorganization to fit them into the new Protestant state régime, and for this Schuleordnungen also were needed. Three of these are reproduced, the one prepared for Brieg (160), the Saxony Plan of Melanchthon (161), and the state school system adopted for Würtemberg (162). An outline of the Schulemethode adopted for the principality of Gotha, and a brief sketch of the important work of Duke Ernest, are given in 163. In England the Reformation zeal for education was far less marked than in German lands, and took more the form of regulations to insure conformity to the new faith. Selections illustrating the careful church supervision of a teacher's acts and beliefs are given in 164; the type of penalties imposed on non-conforming schoolmasters by law in 165; a type of oath of fealty required of a grammar-school master is given in 167; an elementary-school teacher's license is reproduced in 168; and typical grammar-school statutes regarding prayers are given in 169. Reading 166 gives the essential features of the English Act of Conformity of 1662, an act which did much to drive good teachers from the work. One of the important results of the Reformation, in all Protestant lands, was that the people obtained the Bible in the vernacular, and selection 170 sets forth the great importance of this in educating the people in England, and in influencing English literary art. It is often said that the Reformation was destructive of schools, and this certainly was the case in England. The general results afterward were worse, in so far as numbers and opportunities were concerned, than before. That many of the schools abolished or re-founded needed reform may be seen from the extracts relating to the cathedral school at Canterbury (171, 172), the chief cathedral church in England. The details of the re-foundation by Henry VIII (172) give a clear idea of the type of reformed humanistic cathedral grammar school established there. Elementary education in England remained for the nineteenth century to establish, as the nation soon settled down to the nobusiness-of-the-State attitude which persisted up to modern times. The State was, however, early forced to give attention to the needs of the children of paupers. Due to the change of England from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation, numbers of poor from the rural districts flocked into the growing cities, and a long series of Poor-Law legislation ensued. This culminated in the famous Poor-Relief and Apprenticeship Law of 1601 (174), toward which England had for some time been tending (173). 154. Diffusion of Education in Mediæval Times The following extract from Rashdall, an unusually careful scholar, dealing with the preparatory education of a mediæval university student, throws an interesting side light on mediæval education in general. There is no reason to believe that boys came to attend these inferior Grammar Schools in the University towns except from the immediate neighborhood. The majority of scholars must have learned reading, writing, and the rudiments of Grammar nearer home. As to where and how this knowledge was acquired, we have little detailed information. An investigation into the Grammar Schools of the Middle Ages would be a subject for a separate treatise. Suffice it to say that the old ecclesiastical Schools, in connexion with Cathedrals or other important Churches, were not destroyed by the growth of the Universities, and other Schools of the same kind were founded from time to time. Where the' Universities were within easy reach, they were probably restricted for the most part to the study of Grammar, and sometimes the rudiments of Logic. In districts remote from Universities there were ec FIG. 34. A GERMAN FIFTEENTH- (Reproduced from a woodcut on the title- clesiastical Schools of a higher type, which certainly taught a full course of Logic as well as Grammar, and in some cases perhaps the whole range of a University Arts Course. In some countries the bulk of the inferior clergy must have received their education in such Schools. At Vienna, Erfurt, and elsewhere, Schools of this character became a nucleus for the later Universities. Where there was no Cathedral, Grammar Schools were attached to some Collegiate Church, or to ordinary Parish Churches. Sometimes there was an endowment for such schools: elsewhere they were supported by the Municipality, or, in places like Canterbury or Bury, taught by the Monastery. In other cases, no doubt, they were taught by some poor parochial chaplain' in return for the scholars' fees alone. Even in country parishes the Canon Law required that the parish clerk should be able to teach the boys to read as well as to sing their Psalter. How far such regulations were actually carried out, it is of course impossible to determine with pre cision. But it may be stated with some confidence that at least in the later Middle Ages the smallest towns and even the larger villages possessed Schools where a boy might learn to read and acquire the first rudiments of ecclesiastical Latin: while, except in very remote and thinly populated regions, he would never have had to go very far from home to find a regular Grammar School. That the means of education in reading, writing, and the elements of Latin were far more widely diffused in medieval times than has sometimes been supposed is coming to be generally recognized by students of medieval life. The knowledge of reading and writing and of the elements of Latin was by no means confined to the clergy: 'the bailiff of every manor kept his accounts in Latin.' A Grammar Master often formed part of the establishment of a great noble or prelate, who had pages of gentle family residing in his house for education. In other cases a boy of a well-to-do family no doubt received his earliest education from a chaplain or 'clerk' of his father, or from a private tutor or neighboring Priest engaged for the purpose. In the Grammar School the rudiments of a classical education were imparted in much the same way as at the present day. Donatus and Alexander de Villa Dei were the Grammars. After the Psalms had been learned (this much was taught in the most elementary Schools of all), Cato served for Delectus, after which the boy might be put into Ovid and possibly Vergil. In the absence of dictionaries the Master no doubt literally 'read' the book to the pupils, i.e. construed it to them and afterwards required them to do the same. In England books were construed into French as well as English. parsing and exercises set in prose and verse. mar... were also a favorite institution. entered the University all this ceased. No more classical books were construed, and we hear comparatively little of composition, though verse-making sometimes entered into University Examinations. Lectures in Grammar meant formal lectures on the elaborate grammatical treatises of Priscian and Donatus, or the more popular Alexander de Villa Dei. Questions were asked in 155. The Vernacular Style of the Translations of the Bible (From an article in the Literary Supplement of the London Times, 1911) The following short extract from a very interesting article on the English Bible applies with almost equal force to Luther's German translation, in that each was couched in simple, homely phrases so unlike the language of the scholar of the day. This gave to each a strong appeal to the masses of the people, fixed the style of the vernacular, popularized religion, and greatly strengthened the Reformation cause. |