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lish new schools everywhere, but to improve existing schools. In future no teacher shall be admitted, unless he knows the prescribed method of teaching, and has been found capable, on examination before the teachers of the Normal school.

The right of keeping school or teaching the young shall continue to all laymen and ecclesiastics, who at present are engaged in the profession of teachers; but they must, as soon as possible, make themselves familiar with the new method, and conform to the principles of this ordinance.

New schools shall be created only where none exist, and only as many as are necessary; also in those places where the young are too numerous for the existing schools to accommodate all, or for the teachers to bestow the necessary care upon them. When the insufficiency is proved to exist, new schools must be erected, or the old ones repaired, as appears necessary, at the expense of the communes, who draw direct profit therefrom, unless the nobility, who have the advantage of drawing from these schools employees of good character, take upon themselves the expense, or other means are devised.

The school-commission is charged with stating the real wants, and to determine what portion of the expenses each party shall contribute.

4. [Rules for the construction of schoolhouses. General details as to construction, lighting, and equipment.]

5. Branches of instruction. In each of the three classes of schools the instruction shall be:

I. NORMAL SCHOOL. A. Religion. Instruction in religion is to be given:

Ist. From the Catechism specially introduced by the bishop of the diocese, or from the Vienna Catechism for normal schools, approved by the bishops.

2d. In a systematic manner, for which purpose the Reader is arranged.

3d. As history, that the pupils may learn under what circumstances and in what periods the divine revelations took place; what lessons man should draw from them, relative to his own conduct, etc.

4th. By means of interpretation of passages in the Reader, which treat of the principles of morality and the condition of man.

B. Reading. Reading, writing, and orthography; arithmetic and its application; and, in general, all that can contribute to inspire a well-regulated conduct, and be conducive to good manners.

C. Language and science. Subjects which serve to prepare pupils for the study of Latin, or those who intend to pursue the career of political economy, and especially those who will devote themselves to agriculture and the arts and trades, should be introduced. The mother language should be taught by exercises in composition; and the pupils

should obtain a sufficient knowledge of Latin to be able to begin the humanitas, to learn surgery and pharmacy, or to take up the profession of a writer. The best principles of economy, and especially of domestic economy, should be taught; also the history of arts and trades, as well as natural history, within the limits of utility and necessity. Also the elements of history and geography, especially of their own country; also the principles of surveying and mechanics; drawing by means of compass, ruler, and instruments.

D. Methods of instruction. Those who aspire to the profession of teaching, shall be specially made to know, and have explained, what are the duties and qualifications of a good teacher; the methods and practical means by which order and discipline are maintained in classes; how the school registers must be kept, and in what manner they should question the pupils in an examination; finally, what is required of public, and of private teachers.

II. PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS. The programme of the Principal schools comprises the subjects indicated under A and B, and as much as possible, those under C, as the number and ability of the teachers and the time prescribed permit.

III. TRIVIAL SCHOOLS. The subjects of instruction in the schools of small cities, boroughs, and villages, are:

(a) Religion and its history; morals drawn from the Bible and reading.

(b) Reading printed and written type; current handwriting; the four rules of arithmetic, with the rule of simple proportions. (c) In the country a little book is to be used, which has been written to form "an honest citizen," and to teach him thrift and manage

ment.

6. Who shall teach the different branches of instruction. Ecclesiastics alone may teach the Christian doctrine. The Normal and Principal schools have a professor specially charged with giving every day, at least one hour, lessons on the catechism, on sacred history and morality, and explaining the epistles and gospels. It shall be the duty of the vicar to catechise twice, or at least once a week, in the Trivial schools. If the vicars are not sufficient to teach religion in the schools of small towns, burghs, and the country, friars may be appointed, with the approval of the bishops, by the superiors of the neighboring convents. The schoolmasters shall be present during the lessons in the catechism, and pay good attention, that they may be able to repeat to the children the explanations which have been made. If the vicar or clergyman is prevented, the teachers themselves shall be obliged to question the children on what they have learned by heart, for instances, on verses from the Holy Scriptures, etc., or on what they have studied in the Reader relative to religion. Other subjects can be taught by laymen or ecclesiastics, provided they have passed their examination. The

teachers of the Principal schools consist of the director and four or five assistant teachers.

7. [On school books. Charts and school books to be uniform.]

8. On the manner of teaching. Instruction must be given simultaneously to all pupils of the same class. The teacher should take special care that all pupils read together. He will punctually conform to the directions given in the books on method, and aim less at crowding the memory of children than at developing their mind by clear and precise explanations. He should accustom the children to express themselves with facility and exactitude on things which have been explained to them.

9-11. [Division of classes; school hours; duration of studies.]

12. Duty of school-attendance. In cities, all children of both sexes, for whom parents or guardians cannot or will not take a special teacher, must, without exception, attend the public schools from the age of six years until they are sufficiently instructed to choose a trade or profession. As they hardly attain this degree of instruction before the age of twelve years, we shall see with satisfaction, if parents send them to school during six or seven years, and permit them to attend even longer. Children who desire to enter a Latin school before their twelfth year, must submit to a public examination, and obtain a certificate from the school-inspector that they possess the required knowledge. Where distinct schools exist, girls shall be taught separately, and they shall be instructed also in sewing, and all work suitable for their sex. If no distinct schools are organized, the girls shall attend the mixed school, but seated on separate benches.

13. Duty of parents and guardians to send children to school. As the education and instruction of youth has a very great influence on the general well-being, we will not let the good success of our maternal care, in this regard, be endangered by the carelessness of parents and guardians. Consequently we ordain, that they send their children to school at the proper age, or have them instructed at home. We recommend to magistrates and superiors to watch over the execution of this ordinance, to reprimand, and if necessary, to enforce obedience on the part of parents or guardians who neglect this duty.

After the necessary measures have been taken to train capable teachers in the Normal schools, no person shall be permitted to follow the work of teaching, if he possesses no certificate of ability, signed by the authorities of a Normal or Principal school, and for want of such certificate he shall be excluded from the profession.

14. Orphans to be instructed. That the service of orphans may not be an obstacle to their instruction, it shall not be lawful for magistrates to put them out to service before their thirteenth year; or at least those who have not reached that age must be permitted to attend school in Winter. Other persons, who take into their service orphans below

thirteen years of age, will be obliged to send them to school morning and afternoon, and if they are not insolvent, they shall pay half tuition fees for them.

15. Continuation schools. In the country, as well as in cities, the young people who have ceased to belong to primary schools, and particularly those who are apprentices, must, especially in Summer, on Sundays after divine service, if possible, congregate at the common school, where, for two hours, the teacher will recapitulate with them, under the inspection of the curate or vicar. They shall attend these exercises till they are twenty years old. First, they will read the epistle or gospel of the day; then have an exercise in reading, writing, arithmetic, that they may revise the knowledge acquired at school. For these repetitions, passages will be selected from standard works, treating on religion, morality, and all subjects that tend to cultivate honest. principles and domestic and simple tastes. The young should be frequently questioned on various important themes.

The obligation of apprentices to take part in these repetitions shall be such, that their apprenticeship cannot be declared ended, until they have obtained from the school-inspector a certificate, stating that they have fruitfully attended the repetition-school, after making good progress in religion, reading, writing, and arithmetic, in the ordinary course. 16. [School register, and pupil records.]

17. Ordinary inspectors charged with examining the condition of schools. In order that the present regulation shall be observed, the authorities shall appoint in every village some special inspectors, whose reports, addressed to the Commission of Studies, shall contain their names. In the Normal and principal schools the director has the superintendence; moreover, a citizen of the place, a friend of education, shall be nominated by the magistrate, to watch the progress of the schools, and to assure himself that the regulations are faithfully carried out. This inspector will keep account of the children that are diligent, and of those who are not regular in their attendance. He shall state whether the teacher proves zealous or negligent, or conforms to the ordinance. The inspectors should not make their visits at stated periods, but whenever they think proper, without notifying the teachers.

In cities, burghs, or the country, the curate of the parish shall be appointed inspector, one of the magistracy and a prudent man from the inhabitants of the commune. They shall conform to what has been ordained in regard to the inspectors in larger cities. Every inspector addresses a report to the Inspector-General of Normal schools, on the condition of the schools in his jurisdiction.

18. Nomination of Inspector-Generals. The School-Commissions shall elect as Inspector-Generals only persons perfectly capable. A certain district will be assigned to each Inspector-General, in which to make his visits and institute schools. These Inspectors shall make

themselves acquainted with the deficiencies of schools; examine the children in presence of the teacher, and receive the reports of the local inspectors, rendered at Easter and Saint Michel's. These reports the Inspector-Generals forward to the government, which refers them to the School-Commission. They add an abstract of their observations, as well as their remarks on the following objects:

1. In what place and point do magistrates, gentry, and inhabitants, act against the ordinance.

2. What are the obstacles to the success of schools.

3. In what places are school-buildings not in order, or need repair; how are the school servants salaried.

4. What measures should be taken to improve instruction.

5. What curates, vicars, catechisers, and schoolmasters have distinguished themselves by diligence and zeal in teaching, and deserve to be rewarded.

6. What teachers neglect their duty and should be punished; or are incorrigible, and should consequently be discharged. 19-20. [Introducing reforms, and ecclesiastics to learn school methods.] 21. Prohibition to teachers to keep a tavern. Though we are well disposed to permit teachers in the country to exercise an honest trade, provided it does not form an obstacle to their special duties, yet we order and ordain hereby, that no teacher who receives a sufficient salary and enjoys an honest subsistence, shall keep a tavern, under pain of removal.

Neither can we permit school teachers to make music or play at a fair, wedding, or other occasion, in taverns or similar houses. This in future they are strictly forbidden to do, likewise, under pain of removal. We also forbid curates to be accompanied by the teacher in their visits to the sick; they should address themselves to other persons. 22-24. [Examinations, records, reports, inspection.]

Given in our capital and residence, city of Vienna, December 6, 1774

277. Fichte's Addresses to the German Nation

(Fichte, J. G., Reden an die deutsche Nation. Berlin, 1808; trans. in Barnard's American Journal of Education, vol. IV, pp. 150-51)

To the thoughtful intellectual leadership of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814), for a time professor of philosophy at the University of Jena, and afterwards Rector of the new University of Berlin, perhaps more than to any other one man, were the Prussian people indebted for their regeneration during the first two decades of the nineteenth century. During the winter of 1807-08 he delivered a series of lectures in Berlin to the German people (Reden an die deutsche Nation), which stirred the leaders as they

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