GERMANY. with the other Lutherans1 was entitled 'Adiaphoristic.' Reopening of They form the earliest representatives of that gentler, and, on some occasions, over-pliant class of thinkers, who by preaching peace, allaying discords, and reducing irregularities, have exercised a very powerful influence on the spirit of the German reformation. The death of Paul III. (Nov. 10, 1549) presented a more favourable opportunity for trying to obtain a lasting settlement of the disputed dogmas. In pursuance of his object Charles prevailed on the new pontiff, Julius III. to re-establish the council of Trent (May 1, 1551). On this deerimus. Nam de rebus per se mediis non volumus quicquam rixari, quod ad externum attinet usum.' In replying (April 16, 1549), to a letter addressed to him by the consistory of Hamburg (Opp. ed. Bretschn. VII. 367) on this question, Melancthon explains himself at length, and with his usual moderation. 1 This party was headed by Flacius Illyricus, the Wittenberg professor of Hebrew, who, having associated at Magdeburg with others of the same school, denounced the present teaching of Melancthon as a departure from the purity of the Lutheran creed. The controversy lasted for several years, and in September 1556, we find Melancthon writing to Flacius (Opp. VIII. 841), and offering for the sake of unity to confess that he was in the wrong: Fateor etiam hac in re a me peccatum esse, et a Deo veniam peto, quod non procul fugi insidiosas illas deliberationes.' The 'Philippists' and 'Flacianists,' however, long continued to represent distinct shades of Lutheranism, the former predominating in the university of Wittenberg, the latter in that of Jena. The spirit of Melancthon as distinguished from that of Luther is also traceable in Osiander, the reformer of Nüremberg, who on being expelled from thence during the ascendancy of the Interim, was appointed to a profes sorship in Prussia at Königsberg. He there published two disputations, one of which, on the doctrine of justification, reaffirmed the views propounded by some of the older mystics, who had laid especial stress on holiness as the result of the inhabitation of Christ in all the faithful: e. g. 'Fides est justificans, cum tamen non fides, sed Christus fide comprehensus justificet..... Justitia illa, quam fide apprehendimus, est justitia Dei, non tantum quia Deo est accepta, sed quia revera justitia Dei. Hæc justitia non confertur cuiquam, nisi prius ei remissa fuerint peccata per sanguinem Christi.... Glacie frigidiora docent, nos tantum propter remissionem peccatorum reputari justos, et non etiam propter justitiam Christi per fidem in nobis inhabitantis.' A controversy on these topics continued to rage for some years after the death of Ŏsiander (Oct. 17, 1552): see Gieseler, m. ii. pp. 275 sq. Sarpi, I. 542 sq. The Protestant princes on being asked to submit to its decisions, would only consent on these conditions, (1) that subjects already determined at Trent should be re-opened, (2) that the theologians of the Confession of Augsburg should be not only heard in self-defence, but should have the right of voting. (3) that the pope should not be the president, and should submit to the Confessions. occasion also many of the Protestant communities were GERMANY. stimulated to draw up confessions of their faith, the prin- Lutheran cipal being the Confessio Saxonica3, an expanded form of that delivered to the emperor at Augsburg in 1530, and the Confessio Virtembergensis, a document of kindred origin, and actually submitted to the council Jan. 24, 1552. It seems, however, that the critical moment when the Protestants were in great danger of compromising their independence and of undergoing reabsorption into the dominant system of belief, was destined to behold their triumph and to set them free for ages. Protestants. The elector Maurice, who in earlier life had been the Rescue of the cause of their depression, suddenly took the field in their behalf (March, 1552). Allied with France and favoured by a fresh irruption of the Turks, the Protestants were ultimately enabled to extort from Charles and Ferdinand the memorable peace concluded in the Diet of Augsburg council like other persons (Ibid. p. 554) Printed in the Append. to Francke's Lib. Symb. Eccl. Luther. pp. 69 sq. Melancthon, who composed it, states in his Preface, that it was meant simply as a 'repetition' of the Augsburg Formulary. 4 In Le Plat. Monum. Concil. Trident. IV. 420 sq. On its presentation see Sarpi, II. 104. The ambassadors of the elector of Saxony were introduced to the council on the same occasion (Ibid. p. 102); and certain of the Protestant theologians soon afterwards started for the Tyrol to vindicate their doctrines (Ibid. p. 112; Sleidan, pp. 529, 530). 5 His ostensible object was the liberation of his father-in-law, the landgrave of Hessen, who was still unrighteously detained in captivity (cf. above, p. 67, n. 5). On the struggle which ensued, see Leo, as before, pp. 186 sq., and Sleidan, bks. XXIV. XXV. The prelates all dispersed from Trent on hearing that 6 Augsburg had fallen into the hands 6 Sleidan, pp. 620 sq. see also GERMANY. (Sept. 25, 1555). It was there ruled that every landSettlement of proprietor should have the liberty of choosing between the the Contro versy. 'old religion' and the 'new,' so far as this had been embodied in the Augsburg Confession; while his tenants and dependents, in conformity with the prevailing modes of thought, were all expected to abide by his decision and to follow closely in his steps. The two great parties in the German empire, having thus obtained a sort of equilibrium, were content for the remainder of the century to regard each other with comparative respect and outward toleration. Feelings of this kind were strengthened when the crown of Charles was placed, in spite of papal opposition, on the head of his brother Ferdinand1 (March 8, 1558); for the new emperor, though always personally addicted to the unreformed opinions2 was in later years restrained not only by the spread of Lutheranism in many of his own territories3, but still more by his continued misunderstanding with the pontiff. The same policy was cordially adopted by his son and successor Maximilian II. (1564-1576), who in his youth at least had shewn considerable predilection for some portions of the Protestant belief. It is plain, however, that towards the close of his administration, the efforts of the new army of papal volunteers, the Order to a convent in Estremadura, where, The pope was offended on account see Miller, Hist. philos. considered, III. 131. 3rd ed. 9 Yet even with regard to matters of religion he was far more independent than the papal court: e. g. he favoured the concession of the cup to the laity, clerical marriage, and the use of the vernacular in part of the church-service: cf. Leo, PP. 311, 342. 3 lbid. p. 325: cf. Raupach, Erläu• tertes Evangel. Oesterreich, 1. 31 sq. 4 See below on the Constitution and Government of the Church' for some account of this new order, and its rapid progress in counterworking the reformers. ment of of the Jesuits (founded in 1540), had so far succeeded in GERMANY. many quarters, that symptoms of a counter-reformation Commencegrew distinctly visible. The long and peaceful reign of reaction. Rudolph II. (1576-1612), whose education had been guided by the Jesuits, was still further marked by these reactions. While the Lutheran doctors were disputing with each other, or with followers of the school of Calvin, on the very deepest mysteries of Holy Writ; while they were fortifying their conclusions on these topics by the publication in 1577 of what they termed the Formula of Concord, their disciples were excluded step by step from hamlets, towns and districts", where not many years before they had outnumbered their opponents. Ancient jealousies were thus revived, and quarrels, hitherto but half-composed, exasperated and extended, till the seeds of envy, hatred and fanaticism, disseminated with the largest hand in every part of continental Europe, sprouted forth into that crop of human misery and carnage which appals us in the history of the Thirty Years' Wars (1618-1648). Before proceeding to indicate the various steps by which the Lutheran doctrines were diffused and ultimately established in very distant countries, it is desirable to pause a moment and sketch their progress through the several states, which in the sixteenth century constituted the Germanic empire. in Electoral The soil in which those doctrines were first planted, Reformation and from which indeed they drew their principal support, Saxony: 5 Allusion has been made above to several controversies (pp. 49, 69, 70), especially to that respecting the Presence of Christ in the Eucharist (pp. 56, 65). On some new phases of the latter, and also on the numerous points where the disciples of Luther and Calvin were opposed, see below, Chap. m. 6 The aim and structure of this document, the last of the Lutheran 'symbolical books,' will also be most fitly considered in Chap. III. i. 7 Leo, pp. 330 sq., Gieseler, III. 8 See the first book of Schiller's GERMANY. in Ducal Saxony: was the electorate of Saxony, including1 in the period now before us Osterland and Thuringia, together with parts of Misnia and Franconia. All their leading towns were rapidly awakened and illuminated by the university of Wittenberg; and as early as the Saxon Visitation of 1527 the people had been for the most part Lutheranized. Saxony was thus ready to become a refuge and asylum for the persecuted Protestants of other countries, who also would naturally be strengthened in their faith by personal conferences with the religious chieftains. Ducal Saxony, however, did not yield to the reformation-movement until 1539, when George, who corresponded with Erasmus, but continued all his life the bitter enemy of Luther, was succeeded by his brother, the evangelical duke Henry. Leipzig, Dresden and other influential towns were then converted, and the union of the duchy and electorate under Maurice tended to decide the triumph of the new opinions. From Saxony the agitation spread into the neighbourin Hessen: ing states of Philip, landgrave of Hessen, whom we have already seen promoting its extension with characteristic ardour. The university which he inaugurated at Marburg was the center of all his operations, and after two years they may be said to have been completed by the 'synod' held at Homberg (Oct. 21, 1526). in Bavarian Brandenburg: In the Franconian or Bavarian principalities of Brandenburg the progress of the reformation was obstructed 1 Seckendorf, Lib. II. p. 101, col. 2. 2 Its chief towns were Jena, Altenburg and Zwickau. 3 Above, p. 53. 4 See Ranke, Ref. 11. 89. He mentions the following more distinguished refugees: Eberlin, Stiefel, Strauss, Seehofer, Ibach from Frankfurt; Bugenhagen from Pomerania; Kauxdorf from Magdeburg, Mustæus from Halberstadt. 5 It is observable that when duke George became convinced of the importance of the Lutheran move ment and its growth among his subjects, he endeavoured, chiefly through the help of George Wizel (above, p 45, n. 5), to occupy a middle place between reformed and unreformed Seckendorf, Lib. I. pp. 208 sq. 6 Above, pp. 50, 57. 7 Ranke, Ref. II. 506 sq. His chief advisers were Hans von Schwar zenberg and George Vogler (the chancellor). |