29. Such was the reformation in the general institutions for the good of the state; his particular laws for dispensing justice were more numerous. In the first place, all persons, who in public dissensions and differences espoused neither party, but continued to act with a blameable neutrality, were declared infamous, condemned to perpetual punishment, and to have all their estates confiscated.

30. Nothing could more induce mankind to a spirit of patriotism than this celebrated law. A mind, thus obliged to take part in public concerns, learns, from habit, to make those concerns its principal care, and self-interest quickly sinks before them. By this method of accustoming the minds of the people to look upon that man as an enemy that should appear indifferent and unconcerned in the misfortunes of the public, he provided the state with a quick and general resource in every dangerous emergency.

31. He next permitted every particular person to espouse the quarrel of any one, that was injured or insulted. By this means, every person in the state became the enemy of him who did wrong; and the turbulent were thus overpowered by the number of their opponents.

32. He abolished the custom of giving portions in marriage with young women; unless they were only daughters. The bride was to carry no other fortune to her husband than three suits of clothes, and some household goods of little value. It was his aim to prevent making matrimony a traffic; he considered it as an honourable connexion, calculated for the mutual happiness of both parties, and the general advantages of the state.

33. Before this lawgiver's time the Athenians were not allowed to make their wills; but the wealth of the deceased naturally, and of course, devolved upon his children. Solon allowed every one that was childless to dispose of his whole estate as he thought fit; preferring, by that means, friendship to kindred, and choice to necessity and constraint. From this institution the bond between the parents and children became more solid and firm it confirmed the just authority of the one, and increased the necessary dependence of the other.

34. He made a regulation to lessen the rewards to the victors at the Olympic and Isthmian games. He considered it as unjust, that a set of idle people, generally useless, often dangerous to the state, should be allotted those rewards which should go to the deserving. He wished to see those emoluments go to the widows and families of such as fell in the service of their country; and to make the stipend of the state honourable, by being conferred only on the brave.

35. To encourage industry, the Areopagus was charged with the care of examining into every man's method of living; and of chastising all who led an idle life. The unemployed were considered as a set of dangerous and turbulent spirits, eager after innovation, and hoping to amend their fortunes from the plunder of the state. To discountenance all idleness, therefore, a son was not obliged to support his father in old age or necessity, if the latter had neglected giving him some trade or occupation. All illegitimate children were also exempted from the same duty, as they owed little to their parents, except an indelible reproach.

36. It was forbidden to give ill language in public; the magistrates, who were not eligible till thirty, were to be particularly circumspect in their behaviour; and it was even death for an archon to be taken drunk. It is observable that he made no law against parricide, as supposing it a crime that could never exist in any community.

37. With regard to women, he permitted any man to kill an adulterer, if he was taken in the fact. He allowed of public brothels; but prohibited mercenary prostitutes from keeping company with modest women; and, as a badge of distinction, to wear flowered garments. The men also, who were notorious for frequenting their company, were not allowed to speak in public; and he who forced a woman incurred a very heavy fine.

38. These were the chief institutions of this celebrated lawgiver; and although neither so striking, nor yet so well authorised as those of Lycurgus, they did not fail to operate for several succeeding ages; and seemed to gather strength by observance. After he had framed these institutes, his next care was to give them such notoriety that none could plead ignorance.

39. To this end transcripts of them were hung up in the city for every one to peruse, while a set of magistrates, named thesmotheta, were appointed to revise them carefully; and distinctly repeat them once a year. Then, in order to perpetuate the statutes, he engaged the people, by a public oath, to observe them religiously, at least for the term of an hundred years. And thus having completed the task assigned him, he withdrew from the city to avoid the importunity of some, and the captious petulance of others. For, as he well knew, it was hard if not impossible to please all.

40. Solon being thus employed on his travels in visiting Egypt, Lydia, and several other countries, left Athens to become habituated to his new institutions; and try by experience the wisdom of their reformation. But it was not easy for a city, long torn by civil dissensions, to yield implicit obedience to any

laws how wisely soever framed. Their former animosities began to revive, when the authority was removed, which alone could hold them in subjection.

41. The factions of the state were headed by three different leaders, who inflamed the animosity of the people against each other, hoping by the subversion of all order to indulge their own private hopes of aspiring. A person named Lycurgus, was at the head of the people that inhabited the low country; Pisistratus declared for those who lived in the mountains, and Megacles was the leader of the inhabitants upon the sea coast.

42. Pisistratus was of these the most powerful. He was a well bred man; of a gentle and insinuating behaviour; ready to succour and assist the poor, whose cause he pretended to espouse. He was wise, and moderate to his enemies; a most artful and accomplished dissembler, and was every way virtuous, excèpt in his inordinate ambition. His ambition gave the appearance of possessing qualities which he really wanted; he seemed the most zealous champion for equality among the citizens, while he was actually meditating for a change. The giddy multitude, caught by these appearances, were zealous in seconding his views; and, without examining his motives, were driving headlong to tyranny and destruction.

43. It was just at the eve of success, and upon the point of being indulged in its utmost ambition, that Pisistratus had the mortification of seeing Solon return, after an absence of ten years, apprised of his designs, and willing to subvert his schemes. Sensible, therefore, of his danger, and conscious of the penetration of this great lawgiver, the aspiring demagogue used all his artifice to conceal all his real designs; and, while he flattered him in public, used every endeavour to bring over the people to second his interests.

44. Solon, at first, endeavoured to oppose art to his cunning; and to foil him at his own weapons. He praised him in his turn; and was heard to declare what might have been true; that, excepting the immoderate ambition of Pisistratus, he knew no man of greater or more exalted virtues. Still, however, he set himself to counteract his projects; and to defeat his designs, before they were ripe for execution.

45. But in a vicious commonwealth, no assiduity can warn, no wisdom protect. Pisistratus still urged his schemes with unabating ardour; and every day made new proselytes by his professions and his liberalities. At length, finding his schemes ripe for open action, he gave himself several wounds; and in that condition, with his body all bloody, he caused himself to be carried in his chariot to the market-place; where by his com

plaints and eloquence he so inflamed the populace, that they considered him as the victim of their cause; and as suffering such cruel treatment in their defence. An assembly of the people was, therefore, immediately convened, from whom he demanded a guard of fifty persons for his future security.

46. It was in vain that Solon used all his authority and eloquence to oppose so dangerous a request. He considered his sufferings as merely counterfeited. He compared him to Ulysses in Homer, who cut himself with similar designs: but he alleged, that he did not act the part right, for the design of Ulysses was to deceive his enemies; but that of Pisistratus was levelled against his friends and supporters. He upbraided the people with their stupidity, telling them that for his own part, he had sense enough to see through his design, but they only had strength enough to oppose it.

47. His exhortations, however, were vain, the party of Pisistratus prevailed; and a guard of fifty men was appointed to attend him. This was all he aimed at; for now having the protection of so many creatures of his own, nothing remained but insensibly to increase their number. Thus, every day, his hirelings were seen to augment, while the silent fear of the citizens increased in equal proportion. But it was now too late, for having raised the number to put him beyond the danger of a repulse, he at length seized upon the citadel, while none was left who had courage or conduct to oppose.

48. In this general consternation, which was the result of folly on the one hand, and treachery on the other, the whole city was one scene of tumult and disorder; some flying, others only complaining, others preparing for slavery with patient submission.

49. Solon was the only man, who, without fear or shrinking, deplored the folly of the times, and reproached the Athenians with their cowardice and treachery. "You might," said he, "with ease have crushed the tyrant in the bud; but nothing now remains, but to pluck him up by the roots." As for himself, he had at least the satisfaction of having discharged his duty to his country and the laws; and, as for the rest, he had nothing to fear, and now upon the destruction of his country, his only confidence was in his great age, which gave him hopes of not being a long survivor. In fact, he did not survive the liberty of his country above two years: he died at Cyprus, in the eightieth year of his age, lamented and admired by every state of Greece.

50. Besides his skill in legislation, Solon was remarkable for several other shining qualifications. He understood eloquence in so high a degree, that from him Cicero dates the origin of eloquence in Athens. He was successful also in poetry; and

Plato asserts, that it was only for want of due application, that he did not come to dispute the prize with Homer himself.

51. The death of Solon only served to involve Athens in new troubles and commotions. Lycurgus and Megacles, the leaders of the two opposite factions, uniting, drove Pisistratus out of the city; but he was soon after recalled by Megacles, who gave him his daughter in marriage.

52. New disturbances arose. Pisistratus was twice deposed, and twice found means to reinstate himself, for he had art to acquire power, and moderation to maintain it. The mildness of his government, and his implicit submission to the laws, made the people forget the means by which he acquired his power; and, caught by his lenity, they overlooked his usurpation. His gardens and pleasure grounds were free to all the citizens; and he is said to be the first who opened a public library at Athens.

53. Cicero is of opinion, that Pisistratus first made the Athenians acquainted with the books of Homer; that he disposed them in the order in which they now remain, and first caused them to be read at the feast called Panathanea. His justice is not less remarkable than his politeness.

54. Being accused of murder, though it was in the time of his tyranny, he went in person to plead his cause before the Areopagus, where his accuser would not venture to appear. In short, he was master of many excellent qualities; and perverted them no farther than as they stood in competition with empire. Nothing could be objected to him but his having greater power than the laws: but by not exerting that power, he almost reconciled the citizens to royalty. Upon these accounts he was deservedly opposed to usurpers of fewer virtues, and there seemed such a resemblance between him and a more successful invader of his country's freedom, that Julius Cæsar was called the Pisistratus of Rome.

55. Pisistratus, dying in tranquillity, transmitted the sovereign power to his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, who seemed to inherit all their father's virtues. A passion for learning and its professors, had for some time prevailed in Athens; and this city, which had already far outgone all its contemporaries in all the arts of refinement, seemed to submit tamely to kings, who made learning their pride and their profession. Anacreon, Simonides, and others, were invited to their courts, and richly rewarded. Schools were instituted for the improvement of youth in the learned professions; and Mercuries were set up in all the highways, with moral sentences written upon them, for the instruction of the lowest vulgar. Their reign, however, lasted but eighteen years, and ended upon the following occasion.