Equivalents for Nouns.- Any word or group of words that performs the functions of a noun in a sentence, is dealt with as a noun. These may be,

1. A pronoun; as, Things are not what they seem.

2. An adjective; as, None but the brave deserve the fair. 3. An adverb; as, I cannot explain the ins and outs of it. 4. A verbal noun; as, Seeing is believing.

5. Any part of speech, in such sentences as, And is a conjunction.

6. An infinitive phrase; as, To be or not to be, that is the question.

7. A prepositional phrase; as, Over the fence is out!

8. A clause, or a complete sentence; as, What he means, I do not know. What are you doing there, are exactly the words

he used.

EXERCISES ON NOUNS

(a) Name five common nouns; also, five nouns in the common gender. (b) When does a proper noun become common? Illustrate by the following nouns: china, ware; port, wine; morocco and levant, leathers; macadam, roads; the guillotine.

(c) Give the feminine corresponding to the following words: earl, enchanter, enemy, executor, administrator, cousin, brother, testator, protector, marquis, lion, monk.

(d) Make a list of ten verbal nouns.

(e) Prepare sentences in which five other parts of speech are used

as nouns.

(f) Refer to Gray's Elegy, and select ten nouns that are personified. (g) Make a sentence containing all the parts of speech.

EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES

A Midday Plunge. The first call to dinner has sounded, and not a fellow lags behind. But before they go, in they go! This is the sort of fun high school boys have in Michigan, when they go into camp. In the picture on the next page, the teachers and the seniors show at this end, while the, freshmen and the younger boys are at the upper end of the picture.

Tell how the boys of your school enjoy themselves.

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Classification of Pronouns. According to .use, pronouns are divided into five classes. (1) Personal, (2) relative, (3) interrogative, (4) demonstrative, and (5) indefinite.

Personal Pronouns. - A personal pronoun is one that indicates by its form whether it represents the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of. (1) The pronouns denoting the speaker are I, singular; and we, plural. They are called the first personal pronouns. (2) The pronouns denoting the person spoken to, are you, or thou, in the singular, and you, or ye, in the plural. They are called the second personal pronouns. (3) The person spoken of is represented by the pronouns, he, she, and it, in the singular; and they, in the plural. They are called the third personal pronouns.

The Antecedent.

The noun or substantive for which

the pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The pronoun is said to agree with this antecedent in person, gender, and number, but its case depends on its use in the sentence in which it is found. In the sentence,

Arthur hardly thought of his friends outside until the school-bell rang,

the antecedent of his is Arthur. His is third person, masculine gender, singular number, to agree with its antecedent Arthur.

The word it is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence, as It rains; it snows; it follows; it happens; it seems. In such case, it has no antecedent, but it is said to be used impersonally.

The pronoun it is often used as the subject of a sentence in which the logical subject is found after the predicate verb, as, It is impossible for me to comply with your request. By arranging the sentence in the following way, this use may be better understood.

it for me to comply with your request
is

impossible

This is equivalent to

for me to comply with your request

is

impossible

When it is thus used, it is said to be an expletive. The antecedent of it in this sentence is for me to comply with your request.

The Wrong Antecedent. Errors are frequently caused by the use of the wrong antecedent. The rule is that the pronoun refers for its antecedent to the nearest noun which has been previously mentioned. If you use too many pronouns, it will be hard to keep track of them, and of their antecedents, with the result that you will make some awkward mistakes, and will say what you never intended to say.

Barrett Wendell quotes an instance of this kind in a telegram which appeared in a Boston newspaper.

Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 23, 1889. H. W. Grady died this morning. He was born at Athens, Ga., in 1851. His father was a wealthy business man of Athens, and although a Union man, went with his State when she seceded. He was killed while fighting before Petersburg, where he commanded a North Carolina regiment. The funeral has not yet been definitely arranged, but he will be buried in Atlanta, probably on Thursday.

In this last statement, as the sentence stands, the pronoun he can have but one antecedent, the father who died in 1864, instead of the son who died in 1889.

Repetition of Pronouns. A striking example of how a careful writer avoids confusion from the repetition of pronouns is found in the following sentence.

The lad cannot leave his father: for if he should leave his father, his father would die.

Genesis xliv. 22.

Study also this sentence from Longfellow, where similar care is shown.

If the mind, that rules the body, ever so far forgets itself as to trample on its slave, the slave is never generous enough to forgive the injury, but will rise and smite the oppressor.

EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES

A Japanese Holiday. - Were you on this little junket? Let your fancy play, and think out some little story. Write it or tell it. Make it a girl's story. How did you come to be in the party? What was the day's program? How do Japanese young folks enjoy themselves?

A Day's Outing.-Suppose you had a visitor from Japan, a schoolmate, perhaps; how would you plan for a day in the open air, by rail, or on the water, or an automobile ride in your own neighborhood? or a day in the city parks? or a trip to the country? or a hay ride? or a watermelon party, if you live in the South? Write your account, or give it orally.

Cautions with Regard to the Use of Pronouns. -1. Note the use of the nominative form in expressions like It is I, It is they. The subject of the verb to be in all forms except the infinitive, takes the nominative.