(4) Some writers and speakers state to themselves the questions or problems they wish to solve, so as to get them clearly in mind, and then trust to what they call "unconscious cerebration." That is, they rely on the unconscious processes of the mind to work it out, step by step. But of all schemes for securing unity, coherence, and emphasis, the card plan is the most effective.

It is worth your while to master this plan of Wendell's, and to use it until you find a better one. Write out suggestive headings on each of a series of five or six cards or slips. These you can arrange and rearrange, discarding any that need to be set aside, until the order of arrangement suits you. You can then write your story rapidly. Planning for Paragraphs. The card plan has another advantage, for it will always afford a satisfactory basis for paragraphing. If the outline is properly framed, each item of the list will represent a separate paragraph.

Edward Everett, a distinguished American writer and orator, in preparing an address on the Uses of Astronomy, used the following outline, or something like it. Just what he discarded from his original outline in order to bring it to this shape, we do not know.

Outline

The appearance of the sky,

as I entered the train;

as we proceeded;

as the day broke.

Conclusion.

A careful reading of this illustration, quoted below, will show that there is not a word too much, and not an item of any kind that hinders the flow of thought. Everett evidently tells it all in the very order in which it occurred. There is, if you will note it, a fine emphasis at the close.

A GLORIOUS SPECTACLE

The appear

ance of the

sky, as I en

tered the

train.

I had occasion a few weeks since to take the early train from Providence to Boston; and for this purpose rose at two o'clock in the morning. Every thing around was wrapped in darkness and hushed in silence, broken only by what seemed at that hour the unearthly clank and rush of the train. It was a mild, serene midsummer's night; the sky was without a cloud, the winds were whist. The moon, then in her last quarter, had just risen and the stars shone with a spectral luster but little affected by her presence. Jupiter, two hours high, was the herald of the day; the Pleiades, just above the horizon, shed their sweet influence in the east; Lyra sparkled near the zenith; Andromeda veiled her newly discovered glories from the naked eye in the south; the steady Pointers, far beneath the pole, looked meekly up from the depths of the north to their sovereign.

Such was the glorious spectacle as I entered the train. As we proceeded, the timid approach of the twilight became more perceptible; the intense blue of the sky began to

ceeded.

soften; the smaller stars, like little children, went As we profirst to rest; the sister-beams of the Pleiades soon melted together; but the bright constellations of the north and west remained unchanged. Steadily the wondrous transfiguration went on. Hands of angels, hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the dawn.

The blue sky now turned more softly gray; the great watchstars shut up their holy eyes; the east began to kindle. Faint streaks of purple soon blushed along the sky; the As the day whole celestial concave was filled with the inflow- broke ing tides of the morning light, which came pouring down from above in one great ocean of radiance; till at length, as we reached the Blue Hills, a flash of purple fire blazed out from above the horizon and turned the dewy teardrops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds. In a few seconds the everlast

ing gates of the morning were thrown wide open and the lord of day, arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man, began his course.

Conclusion.

I do not wonder at the superstition of the ancient Magians, who in the morning of the world went up to the hilltops of Central Asia, and, ignorant of the true God, adored the most glorious work of his hand. But I am filled with amazement, when I am told that in this enlightened age, and in the heart of the Christian world, there are persons who can witness this daily manifestation of the power and wisdom of the Creator and yet say in their hearts, "There is no God." -Edward Everett, in the Uses of Astronomy, first

delivered at the inauguration of the Dudley Observatory, at Albany, N. Y.

Each of the four paragraphs of which this extract is composed has one main topic, which is indicated by the insets at the side of the page. You will note that each paragraph is distinct and clear, and that when Everett has completed one item of his outline, he does not go back to it, but goes on to discuss some point not yet touched upon. The Independent Paragraph. When what is to be stated is expressed in a single paragraph, as is often the case, it is called an independent paragraph.

The Lord's prayer is given in an independent paragraph. Another striking example is afforded in Lincoln's Gettysburg address. Almost all brief editorial comment in newspaper and magazine work is in the form of the independent paragraph.

Related Paragraphs. If the thought is expressed in two paragraphs, the first paragraph is usually introductory, while the second paragraph is more fully explanatory.

Where several paragraphs are used, the transitional paragraph is found. Its purpose is twofold. It is used either

to do away with monotony by introducing another and newer method of handling the subject, or to introduce an argument or an illustration not before hinted at.

Where the whole subject is briefly restated, the paragraph is called a summarizing paragraph. This generally occurs at the end of the article or story, but in newspaper work, in order to call attention at the very outset to the value of the article following, it is often found at the beginning.

The Topic Statement. A clear, concise statement of the main thought contained in a paragraph is called the topic statement. This does not often occur in continuous statements and narratives, but is frequent in writings which follow a careful outline, and in arguments.

Alaska. Ready to Start. - Tell the story of this start as if you were the driver. Make it an independent paragraph with a definite topic statement.

The reindeer is a wonderful gift to the Eskimos. He is hardy, strong, and docile, and fully capable of taking care of himself. He feeds chiefly upon an Arctic moss, growing plentifully in Alaska. While the Eskimos gather and store quantities of this for winter use, the reindeer can find it for himself even under heavy snows. Formerly, when the natives depended upon dogs for their sleds, the immense packs of dogs ate a large proportion of the supply of dried fish put up for winter use, often reducing their masters to the verge of starvation. Now, the reindeer herds increase rapidly, affording skins for clothing and harness, and ample supplies of fresh meat for food and for sale.

Here is shown a driver ready to start for the Igloo Fair, over a hundred miles away. The sled is carefully packed and carries everything for the journey, including snowshoes, rifles, and food for both man and deer. A companion reindeer is bellowing farewell, and to the right is seen an Eskimo dog. The forest in the background is highly valued for the sake of fuel, and logs for building.

Collecting and Organizing Material. In preparing to speak or write, the first thing to do is to collect material. Next to this in the order of preparation, but equally important so far as effectiveness is concerned, is the proper arrangement or organization of your material. "Expres

sion in speech (and of course in writing) includes ability to collect and organize material for oral discourse on subjects of common interest.”1

EXERCISE IN THE EFFECTIVE USE OF MATERIAL

(a) Outline Work. Arranging Your Material. Collect your material, and then proceed to arrange or organize it. Take one or more of the exercises given on the following pages. They are designed for practice in arranging an outline to the best advantage.

1 From the Report of the Committee on English, N. E. A. Commission on Reorganization of High Schools.