vessel must be at the port ready to receive goods, for a reasonable period, and must sail at the appointed time, weather and tide permitting. She must be properly navigated, and also directed to her port of destination by the usual and approved course. If she deviate unnecessarily, the master and owners are responsible if loss be occasioned, though should be by the act of God or the king's enemies. The master must not incur risk by sailing with contraband goods on board, or without the proper papers. He must use every effort to convey the cargo in safety. Where he cannot proceed in his own ship, he must forthwith adopt such means as may be best suited to preserve the safety and value of all the property committed to his charge. "Transshipment," "for the place of destination, if it be practicable, is the first object, because that is in furtherance of the original purpose; if that be impracticable, return or a safe deposit may be expedient. The merchant should be consulted if possible. A sale is the last thing the master should think of, because it can be only justified by that necessity which supersedes all human laws. If he sell without necessity, his owners, as well as himself, will be answerable to the merchant; and they will be equally answerable if he place the goods at the disposal of a Vice-Admiralty Court in a British colony, and they are sold under an order of the court, such court having no authority to order a sale. And the persons who buy under such circumstances will not acquire a title as against the merchant, but must answer to him for the value of the goods." (Abbot, 243, 244.) On his arrival the master must report his ship and crew, exhibit his manifest, and deliver the cargo to the consignee [BILL OF LADING] on payment of charges. [FREIGHT.]

The obligation on the part of the freighter or merchant, is to furnish a sufficient cargo-if he have covenanted for a full one, he must provide it though it exceed what was specified as the burthen of the ship, becoming liable in compensation for any portion not occupied. This compensation for the freight of cargo stipulated for, but not supplied, is called dead freight. Certain days are generally specified, during which the merchant is entitled to delay the vessel in loading and unloading; these are termed " Lay-days." A specific sum is in some cases covenanted to be paid, should the vessel be longer detained, and if a rate is not agreed upon, a charge may be made of the nature of damages. [DEMURRAGE.] Before receiving delivery of the cargo, the merchant must pay the freight. (Abbot, 162-425. Smith's Mercantile L., 239-261.)

AGAL-AGAL, a glutinous substance obtained from a seaweed in the Philippine Islands. It is much used in China for gumming silks and paper. S

AGARIC (Boletus), a fungus growing on trees. Two species of boletus are known under the same name. The B. pini laricis, or male agaric of druggists, was at one time employed as a purgative, but it is now in disuse. The B. ignarius, called female agaric, was formerly valued as a styptic, but is at present chiefly used for preparing the tinder or touchwood called on the continent amadou, and in this country German tinder. It is found in most countries, and particularly in the Highlands of Scotland, on the trunks of old ash and other trees. That which grows upon the oak, however, is most esteemed.

AGATE (Ger. Achat), popularly called Scotch pebble, is a well-known stone used in jewellery and in the arts. It is one of the modifications of form under which silica is found in almost a state of purity. The siliceous particles are not arranged so as to produce the transparency of rock crystal, but a translucent, sometimes almost opaque substance, with a resinous or waxy fracture; and a variety of shades of colour are produced by a minute quantity of iron, for the beauty of which, together with the high polish they are capable of receiving, agates are highly prized as ornaments. Agates are usually met with in that variety of the trap rocks called amygdaloid or mandelstein; they are also found as loose pebbles in the beds of rivers or in gravel, but in these cases they have been derived from the disintegration of amygdaloids. They vary in size from that of a pin head to a foot in diameter, but those of one, two, or three inches are the most common. They are found in the river Achates, now the Drillo, in Sicily, whence it is said they derive their name; but the principal supply is procured from Oberstein, in Germany. They also occur in many parts of Scotland, especially in the Isle of Skye, and at Kinnoull near Perth. The stones known by the names of Carnelian, Calcedony, Onyx, Sardonyx, Mocha-stone, Blood-stone, Chrysoprase, and Plasma, are closely allied to Agate, and in chemical composition they are not distinguishable, except in the case of the Chrysoprase, by its colouring matter.

AGENT. [PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.]

AGIO, a term applied in some parts of the continent to the premium or per centage allowed on a better sort of money when it is given in exchange for an in

ferior kind. Thus, at Hamburg, when 100 marks banco are exchangeable for 120 marks currency, the agio on banco is said to be 20 per cent.; it being always reckoned upon the more valuable money. In France, again, where payments can be demanded only in silver coin, a small premium is sometimes paid by the receiver in order to obtain gold coin; this premium is called the agio on gold.

When the per centage, or difference, is considered, with regard to the inferior sort of money, it is called discount. Thus, when 100 dollars in bank-notes are exchangeable for only 90 dollars in coin, the discount on the paper is said to be 10 per cent.

AHM, AAM, OR OHM, a German wine measure, varying in different places. In Dantzic, it contains 33; in Hamburg, 313; in Hanover, 34; and in Rotterdam, 331 imp. galls. nearly.

ALABASTER (It. Alabastro, Fr. Albâtre), a species of gypsum resembling marble, but softer, takes a duller polish, and when pure is much whiter and semitransparent. Some stones, however, of a veined and coloured appearance, and also certain transparent and yellow ones of a sparry nature, are termed alabasters. It is used for small statues, lamps, vases, and other ornaments. The finest is found near Volterra, in Tuscany. It is also procured in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and in great abundance on the shores of the Bristol Channel, between Watchet and Minehead, where it is manufactured into toys and ornaments.

ALBATA, British Plate or German Silver, a compound of tin, copper, and nickel, now extensively used in this country in the manufacture of a variety of articles which were formerly plated or made entirely of silver. Albata goods do not look so well as those plated, when the latter are entirely new, but they possess superior durability. Birmingham and Sheffield are the principal seats of this manufacture.

ALCOHOL (Fr. Esprit de Vin. Ger. Weingeist. It. Spirito di vino), is a liquid which forms the intoxicating principle of fermented liquors. It is by the distillation of such liquors that ardent spirits are obtained, and they receive the names of brandy, rum, gin, or whisky, according to the nature of the substance employed, but in every case consist almost entirely of three ingredients, viz. alcohol, water, and a little oil or resin, to which they owe their flavour and colour. When these liquids are redistilled, the first portion that comes over is a fine light, transparent fluid, known in commerce by the name of rectified spirits. When as highly rectified as possible, the specific gravity of the liquid obtained does not appear to be less than 820, and is generally more. Alcohol cannot, by this process, be deprived of the whole of the water with which it is combined; but by redistillation with hot muriate of lime, it is procured of the specific gravity 791 at 68°, or 796 at 60° Fahrenheit. In this state it is the strongest that can at present be produced, and it is therefore called pure or absolute alcohol. The alcohol of commerce or spirit of wine, is never so strong as this; its specific gravity is seldom under 837. In this state it is fragrant, limpid, colourless, volatile, inflammable, and of a pungent agreeable taste. It has never been frozen. At 173° it boils. It combines with water in every degree; and the proportion of it present in common spirits is best judged of by their specific gravity, and is usually ascertained by Sikes' Hydrometer." The specific gravity of what is called pure alcohol being 796 at 60° Fahrenheit, and that of water 1000, it follows, that the lighter a spirit is the stronger is it. What in this country is called proof spirits, was understood to be a mixture of equal bulks of alcohol and water; but this is not the case it contains 52-100 parts of its weight of water. When spirits are weaker than this, they are said to be under proof; when stronger, to be above proof: thus, "10 under proof" signifies that every 100 gallons of that spirit would require to have 10 gallons of water abstracted from it to bring it up to proof; and " 10 over proof," that every 100 gallons contains too little water by 10 gallons. Philosophers, however, are not yet agreed upon absolute alcohol; and hitherto the term proof-spirit has been often indefinitely employed.

The great importance of accuracy in determining the strength of alcoholic mixtures induced the Lords of the Treasury, a few years ago, to request the Royal Society to give an opinion upon the subject. In the report of the committee of this body (drawn up by Mr Faraday), it is stated, that "a definite mixture of alcohol and water is as invariable in its value as absolute alcohol can be. It is also invariable in its nature." It is therefore proposed, "that standard spirit be that which, consisting of alcohol and water alone, shall have a specific gravity of 092 at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit, water being unity at the same temperature; or in other words, that it shall at 62° weighths, or ths of an equal bulk of water at the same temperature." "This standard is rather weaker than the old proof spirit (the specific gravity of which, at 62° is 0-918633), in the proportion of nearly 11 gallon of the present proof-spirit per cent." In regard to the specific gravity of any mixture of alcohol and water, "your committee are of opinion that the hydrometer

is the instrument best fitted, in the hands of the excise officer, to indicate that specific gravity, and they think it ought to be so graduated as to give the indication of strength, not upon an arbitrary scale, but in terms of specific gravity, at a fixed temperature, which in the present case should be 62°, or that of the standard spirit."

Alcohol is extensively used in the arts. It dissolves the resins, camphor, and the essential oils; and hence its use in varnish-making, in pharmacy, and in perfumery; while its fluidity at the lowest temperatures,-its antiseptic properties, and its purity and ready inflammability, render it applicable to a great variety of other purposes. (Brande's Chemistry. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, art. Alcohol.) (SPIRITS.]

ALDER (Alnus glutinosa), an aquatic tree, found in all parts of Europe, the north of Africa, and in Asia and North America. Its timber is reddish yellow in colour, and being soft works easily. It is much used for piles, pumps, and other underground purposes where it is kept constantly wet; and its stems, hollowed out, are among the best materials, next to metal, for waterpipes. The veiny knots are often cut into vencer. The bark is valuable for tanning; and the young shoots, when mixed with other ingredients, are used for dyeing. The alder rots when exposed to the weather, and when dry is subject to worms.

ALE. [BEER.]

ALEXANDRIA. [EGYPT.]

ALGIERS extends about 500 miles along the northern shore of Africa, from about 8° 30' east, to 1° 30' west. It is bounded on that side by the Mediterranean, on the east by Tunis, south by the Sahara or Great Desert, and west by Morocco, from which it is separated by the desert of Angad. There are four provinces, Algiers Proper, Constantina, Titteri, and Mascara; the first was under the direct government of the Dey; the others under local rulers called Beys. In 1830, the principal part of the country was conquered by the French, by whom it is still retained. Population, about 2,000,000, one half being Kabyles or Berbers, and the rest chiefly Arabs, Moors, Cooloolis, Jews, and Soudan negroes.

The country is traversed by branches of the great mountain-chain of Atlas, and in general is well watered and highly fertile. In the high grounds of the interior, the same plants can be reared as are cultivated on the opposite shores of the Mediterranean; while there is reason to believe that all the productions of more southern, and even of tropical climates, might on the low grounds near the coast be cultivated with advantage. The grain sown is wheat, barley, maize, millet, doura and rice. The mountains are rich in metals and timber; and in the eastern parts, towards Oran and Mostagan, there is great abundance of fossil salt. The manufactures are inconsiderable. On the coast, near Bona, there are extensive coral banks, the seat of an important fishery, carried on chiefly by Italian vessels.

The

Algiers, 36° 48' N., 3° 4′ E., the principal city and port, rises in the form of an amphitheatre near the middle of the coast. It is defended on the seaside by very strong batteries. harbour, a work of immense labour, is formed by two projecting moles; and is about 15 feet deep; but it is unsafe, and vessels lying along it must be strongly fastened by cables. Formerly the population was about 70,000, including a number of Jews; but the expulsion of the Turks, and the emigration of the Moors, have since greatly reduced this number. Exports,-oil, wax, hides, skins, corn, fruit, wool, rugs, embroidered handkerchiefs, ostrich feathers. Imports,-cotton goods, silks, spices, metals, hardware, earthenware, and other manufactured goods.

The principal intercourse of Algiers is with France, Britain, Italy, and Spain. The extent of the British intercourse cannot be precisely ascertained, as the public accounts do not distinguish the trade of the different Barbary States, while large quantities of British manufactures, particularly cottons, are imported by way of Leghorn and Gibraltar. In 1832, the value of cottons imported into the town of Algiers, was from France, £7363; and of British cottons from Leghorn, £28,558; Gibraltar, £17,900; Tunis, £307; total, £46,765; in all, £54,128. In 1837 the amount of imports into Algiers from France (exclusive of £83,507 of specie) was £703,787; of which French merchandise, £472,020; foreign merchandise. £231,767; in the same year the amount of exports to France was only £58,012 exclusive of £9331 of specie.

The other chief ports possessed by the French are Oran, Bona, and Mostagan. The principal inland town is Constantina, pop. 30,000.

The Measures, Weights, and Monics are chiefly those of France. The Algerine pataca, or piastre of 24 tomins, is valued at 1 franc 86 cents, or 1s. 6d. sterling. The Turkish pic used in measuring cloth 24 inches; the Moorish pic, used for cotton and linen, = 184 inches. The caffise of 16 tarries = 83 imperial bushels. The metalli of oil weighs 37 lbs. 6 oz. avoirdupois. The metical = 73 grains troy; and 100 rottoli = 119 lbs. avoirdupois.

The conquest of Algiers has relieved the Mediterranean from the dread of piracy; though it will be long before any other advantage can be derived from this achievement by France. The climate is indeed good, and the soil rich; but the inhabitants of the adjacent country are regardless of treaties, strangers to the enjoyments of social life, addicted to plunder, and accustomed to consider war as their profession. For some years rumours prevailed that Louis Philippe was determined to relieve his exchequer of the burden entailed by this colony; but as some of the most formidable obstacles to success have been removed, no doubt is now entertained that he will persevere in the undertaking. (Russell's Barbary States, Edin. Cab. Lib. No. XVII.) See ALGERIA, in S ALICANT. [SPAIN.]

ALIEN, in its original acceptation, is applied to any one born out of the dominions of Great Britain. The disqualifications of aliens do not, however, apply to all individuals so situated. By 7 Anne, c. 5, the children of all natural born subjects, though they happen to be born beyond the liegeance of the crown, are deemed to

be natural born subjects; and in explanation, it is enacted by 4 Geo. II. c. 21, $2, that this privilege does not include the children of persons who, at the time of the birth, were attainted, or liable to the penalties of treason. By 13 Geo. III. c. 21, § 1, the benefit is extended to grandchildren of natural born subjects, i. e. to the children of persons declared to be naturalized by these statutes. Aliens cannot hold real property in the United Kingdom, but an alien may trade and acquire property in goods, money, and other personal estate. "Also," says Sir William Blackstone, an alien may bring an action concerning personal property, and may make a will, and dispose of his personal estate: not as in France, where the king, at the death of an alien, is entitled to all he is worth by the droit d'aubaine or jus albinatus, unless he has a peculiar exemption" (I. 372). This hard law is now repealed in France, to the extent of allowing the representative of a foreigner to succeed to his property, in so far as Frenchmen hold the same privilege in the foreigner's native country (Code Civil, Liv. iii. Tit. i. ch. 2, art. 726). Alien enemies can hold no property in the United Kingdom, and cannot pursue actions. "The children of aliens," says Blackstone, "born here in England, are, generally speaking, natural born subjects, and entitled to all the privileges of such, in which the constitution of France differs from ours; for there, by their jus albinatus, if a child be born of foreign parents, it is an alien" (I. 374). By the later law of France, however, children of foreign parents may become naturalized by claiming the privilege in the course of a year following the attainment of majority, and declaring their determination to reside permanently in France (Code Civil, Liv. i. Tit. i. ch. 1, art. 9). The crown may grant to aliens letters of denization. A denizen may, take lands by purchase or devise, which an alien may not, but cannot take by inheritance: for his parent, through whom he must claim, being an alien, had no heritable blood; and, therefore, could convey none to the son. And upon a like defect of hereditary blood, the issue of a denizen, born before denization, cannot inherit to him; but his issue born after may" (Blackstone, i. 374). The rule in Scotland appears to be analogous. (Erskine's Inst. iii. 10, § 10.) The full right of citizenship can only be conferred by Act of Parliament. In bills of naturalization, it is usual to insert a clause disabling the party from being a Member of the legislature or of the Privy Council. By 13 Geo. II. c. 3, every foreign seaman who, in time of war, serves two years on board an English ship, by virtue of the King's Proclamation, is naturalized; and by statutes 13 Geo. II. c. 7; 20 Geo. II. c. 44; 22 Geo. II. c. 45; 2 Geo. III. c. 25, and 13 Geo. III. c. 25, all foreign Protestants, upon their residing seven years in any of the American colonies, without being absent two months at a time, and all such persons serving two years in a military capacity there, or being three years employed in the whale-fishery, without afterwards being more than one year absent from the king's dominions; and by 26 Geo. III. c. 50, §§ 24, 27, 28; and 28 Geo. III. c. 20, 15, all foreigners who have established themselves and families in Britain, and carried on the southern whale-fishery, are naturalized as if by act of naturalization. In Ireland, the Parliament passed a temporary act (14 and 15 Cha. II. c. 13) for naturalizing all aliens of the Protestant religion intending to reside permanently with their families and property. By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, the statutory disabilities of aliens were, in respect of property, greatly mitigated.

By 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 11, all aliens, on their arrival from abroad, must declare their name and country to the chief officer of customs at the port of landing, and show him their passport, with a view to their being registered, under penalty of £2; and shipmasters must report all aliens brought over seas in their vessels, under a penalty of £20, and £10 additional for each alien on board.

ALKALIS, a class of chemical bodies characterized generally by their peculiar hot, bitter, and caustic taste; by their changing the colours of vegetable blues to green, and yellows to brown; and by their neutralizing acids, and forming with them the class of compounds called salts. The principal alkalis are ammonia, potash, and soda: an account of which, and such others as possess commercial interest, will be given under their proper heads. The value of any alkali is determined by an alkalimeter, a graduated instrument which shows the quantity of acid neutralized by a given weight of the sample, and hence the amount of pure alkali contained in it. The alkalimeter at present used, is minutely described in Mr Faraday's Chemical Manipulation. S

ALKANET (Fr. Orcanette. Ger. Orkanez-wurzel. It. Arganetta. Sp. Arcaneta), the root of a species of bugloss (Anchusa tinctoria), a native of the warmer parts of Europe. It is of a dark red colour, and white within; and imparts an elegant tint to alcohol, wax, and to all unctuous substances.

The colouring matter is confined to the bark, and the small roots are preferred, as these have most bark in proportion to their bulk. Alkanet is produced in England; but the best is imported from near Montpellier in France, and from the Levant.

ALLIGATION, in commercial arithmetic, is a formula for ascertaining the proportion of constituents or ingredients in a mixture.

I. To find what quantity of any number of ingredients, whose rates are given, will compose a mixture of a given rate. Rule-1. Write down the rates of the ingredients under each other. 2. Connect by a curved line, the rate of each ingredient, which is less than that of the mixture, with one or any number of those that are greater, and each greater rate with one or any number of those that are less. 3. Put the difference between the mixture rate, and that of each of the ingredients, opposite the contrary rate with which it is linked. 4. Then if only one difference stand against any rate, it will be the quantity belonging to that rate; but if there be several, their sum will be the quantity.

II. When the whole composition is limited to a certain quantity. Rule.-Find an answer as before, by linking; then say as the sum of the quantities, or differences thus determined, is to the given quantity, so is each ingredient found by linking, to the required quantity of each.

III. When one of the ingredients is limited to a certain quantity. Rule.-Take the difference between each price and the mean rate as before; then, as the difference of that ingredient whose quantity is given is to the rest of the differences respectively, so is the quantity given to the several quantities required.

In the same manner, questions of this kind may be worked when several of the ingredients are limited to certain quantities, by finding first for one limit, and then for another. In general, however, cases in alligation are best resolved by an analytical process, as they form what are called indeterminate or unlimited problems, from their admitting of a variety of answers. [AVERAGE.] ALLOWANCES. [TARE.]

ALLOY, in coinage, a certain proportion of harder metal, mixed with pure gold and silver, in order to render them less flexible, and better adapted for general use. ALLSPICE. [PIMENTO.]

ALMONDS (Ďu. Amandelen. Fr. Amandes. Ger. Mandeln. It. Mandole. Por. Amendoas. Sp. Almendias), the kernel of the fruit of the almond tree (Amygdalis communis), a native of Syria and Barbary, but now naturalized in the south of Europe. Almonds are of an oblong compressed shape, nutty taste, and are covered with a thick brown skin. There are two permanently distinct varieties, the sweet and the bitter; but many subvarieties are distinguished in the places of growth. It is said that the eye can discover no difference between the sweet and bitter almonds, nor between the trees which produce them; and it is asserted (though without probability) that the same tree, by culture, has been made to bear both. Almonds are now little used in medicine; the sweet, are a common article of the dessert; the bitter, are used chiefly in cooking to give a flavour to other articles. Both become rancid by keeping. They are gathered in August and September, but are not generally shipped till the middle of October. They are imported into this country chiefly from Barbary, especially Mogadore, and from Valencia, Alicant, and Malaga, in Spain; small quantities are, besides, brought from France, Portugal, and Italy. Bitter almonds are obtained almost wholly from Barbary. The best sweet are the Jordan variety, brought from Malaga; they are longer, flatter, less pointed at one end, and less round at the other, and have a paler cuticle than the other kinds.

Prior to 1832, when the duty was reduced, the consumption of almonds was only about 3000 cwts. annually; but it is now 8000 cwts. In 1836, there were imported 17,370 cwts.; re-exported, 8814 ewts.; and entered for consumption, 8061 cwts., yielding of customs' revenue, £8101. The prices in bond, per cwt., quoted in the London market in July 1839, were, Jordan, £9 to £10; Valencia, £4, 10s.; Barbary, bitter, £2, 10s.

Customary Tares.-In the shell, 2-3d parts; in baskets of 14 to 14 cwt., 6 lbs. each; in serons of 1 to 2 cwt., 12 lbs. each.

ALMOND OIL, a fat or greasy substance expressed from sweet and bitter almonds. Sp. gr. 915. It is pale yellow, but becomes colourless when long exposed to light. It soon grows rancid, espe cially if in contact with oxygen. [OIL.] It is so plentiful, that 5 lbs. of almonds have yielded 1 lb. 6 oz. of oil by cold expression, and 3 lb. more on heating them. S

ALMUDE, a measure for liquids in various places. In Lisbon, it contains 364 imp. galls. ; in Oporto, 5'61 do. ; in Faro, 4·08 do. ; and in Constantinople, 1-15 do. ALOE, AMERICAN. [MAGUEY.]

ALOES (Fr. Aloès. Ger. It. & Sp. Aloe. Pers. Sibbir), a bitter resinous juice, extracted from the leaves of a succulent plant of the same name. It is used as a