presented the nearest approach in form and substance to the language of the present day as spoken and written by educated Englishmen. In the works of Ormin and Robert of Brunne we have evidence of its great capacity for literary purposes. Wicliffe and Gower added considerably to its importance, but in the hands of Chaucer it attained to the dignity of a national language. He represented, and identified himself with, that new life which the English people at this time were just commencing, and his works reflect not only his own inimitable genius, but the spirit, tastes, and feelings of his age. It was this, combined with his thorough mastery over the English language, that caused Chaucer to become to others (what no one had been before) a standard of literary excellence; and for two hundred years after he had no equal, but was regarded as the father of English poetry, the Homer of his country, and the well of English undefiled.

With the Canterbury Tales commences the modern period of English literature. Our earlier authors are usually studied for their philological importance, and most of them require the aid of a grammar and a glossary, but Chaucer is as easily understood as Spenser and Shakespeare. Not many of his terms are wholly obsolete, and but few of his inflections have gone wholly out of use. But as some special acquaintance with Chaucer's English will be of great service in mastering the poet's system of versification, an outline of his grammatical forms (for the most part taken from Prof. F. J. Child's Essay on Chaucer) is here subjoined, which will be found useful should

r 'From this Babylonish confusion of speech [i.e. the numerous local dialects of the English language in the fourteenth century] the influence and example of Chaucer did more to rescue his native tongue than any other single cause; and if we compare his dialect with that of any writer of an earlier date, we shall find that in compass, flexibility, expressiveness, grace, and all the higher qualities of poetical diction, he gave it at once the utmost perfection which the materials at his hand would admit of.' (Marsh, Origin and History of the English Language, p. 381.)

In the first place, as he (Chaucer) is the father of English poetry, so I hold him in the same degree of veneration as the Grecians held Homer, or the Romans Virgil." (Dryden's Preface to The Fables.)

the young student feel disposed to make himself acquainted with the works of earlier English writers.

NOUNS.

Number. The plural for the most part terminates in

-ës :

'And with his stremës dryeth in the grevës
The silver dropës hanging on the levës.'
(Knightes Tale, 11. 637-8.)

I. -s is frequently added, (a) to nouns terminating in a liquid or dental, as bargayns, naciouns, palmers, pilgryms, &c.; (b) to most words of more than one syllable.

In some MSS. we find -is, -us, for -es-as bestis, beasts; leggus, legs; othus, oaths-which seem to be dialectical varieties, and probably due to the scribes who copied the MSS.

2. Some few nouns (originally forming the plural in -an) have -en, -n; as asschen, ashes; assen, asses; been, bees; eyen, yen, eyes; fleen, fleas; flon, arrows; oxen; ton, toon, toes; schoon, shoon, shoes.

The following have -n, which has been added to older forms— (a) in -e (originally in -u); (b) in -y.

(a) Brethren (A. S. bróthru, O. E. brothre, brethre), brothers. Doughtren (A. S. dohtru, O. E. dohtre), daughters.

Sistren, sustren (A. S. sweostru, O. E. swustre), sisters.
Children (A. S. cildru, O. E. childre), children t.

(b) Kyn (A. S. cý), kine". Add fon, foon (A. S. fán), foes. 3. The following nouns, originally neuter, have no termination in the plural:-deer, folk, good, hors, neet, scheep, swin, thing, yer, yeer; as in the older stages of the language night, winter, freond (A. S. frýnd) are used as plurals.

4. Feet, gees, men, teeth, are examples of the plural by vowelchange.

t In some of the O.E. Northern and Midland dialects we find brether (brothers), childer (children), deghter (daughters).

u In some of the Northern and Midland dialects we find kye (cows).

Case. The genitive case singular ends in -ës; as

'Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre.' (Prol. 1. 47.)

I. In Anglo-Saxon, fæder, bróthor, dohtor, took no inflexion in the genitive singular: this explains such phrases as 'fader day,' 'fader soule,' 'brother sone,' 'doughter name.'

2. The following phrases contain remnants of feminine nouns which originally formed the genitive in -an (first declension of A. S. nouns):-'Lady (=ladyë) grace;' 'lady veyl;' 'cherchë blood;' 'hertë blood;' 'widow (=widewe) sone;' 'sonnë upriste' (uprising).

3. The dative case singular occasionally occurs and terminates in -e; as beddë, holtë, &c.

4. The genitive plural is much the same as in modern English; as 'foxës tales;' 'mennës wittes.' Forms in -en (= -ene) are not common in Chaucer's works: 'his eyghen (of eyes) sight' occurs in Canterbury Tales, l. 10134 (Wright's Text).

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives, like the modern German, have two forms-Definite and Indefinite. The definite form is preceded by the definite article, a demonstrative adjective, or a possessive pronoun, and terminates in -ë in all cases of the singular; as 'the yong-e sone,' 'his half-e cours.' Words of more than one syllable nearly always omit the final -e.

The vocative case of the adjective takes this -e; as 'lev-e brother' (1. 326, p. 42); 'O strong-e God' (l. 1515, p. 81).

Degrees of Comparison.-The Comparative degree is formed by adding -er (-re) to the Positive; as lever, gretter*. We find some few forms in -re remaining; as derre (dearer); more (mare); ferre (further); herre (higher); nerre, nɛr (nearer); sorre (sorer).

Leng, lenger (lengre), = longer; strenger, = stronger, are

- Occasionally the definite form of the comparative seems to end in -ere (-re), to distinguish it from the indefinite form in -er; but no positive rule can be laid down, as -er and -re are easily interchanged.

examples of vowel-change; as seen in the modern English elder, the comparative of old.

Bet (bettre) and mo are contracted forms.

The Superlative degree terminates in -este (-est): nest or next, and hext (highest) are abbreviated forms.

Number. The plural of adjectives is denoted by the final -e: 'And smalë fowles maken melodye.' (Prol. 1. 9.)

Adjectives of more than one syllable, and adjectives used predicatively, mostly drop the -e in the plural. Some few adjectives of Romance origin form the plural in -es; as 'places delitables?

DEMONSTRATIVES.

1. The old plural tho (A. S. thá) of the definite article is still used by Chaucer, but the uninflected the is more frequently used. In the phrases 'that oon,'' that other'—which in some dialects became the toon (ton), the tother—that is the old form of the neuter article; but Chaucer never uses that except as a demonstrative adjective, as in the present stage of the language. 2. Atte at the (A.S. at thám ; O.E. at than, attan, atta, masc. and neut.); the feminine would be atter (O. E.), at þære (A.S.). 3. Tho must be rendered those, as well as the; as 'tho wordes,' ' and tho were bent.' It is occasionally used pronominally, as 'oon of tho that,' one of those that.

4. This has for its plural thise, thes, these (A. S. thás, thæs). In some MSS. this occurs for thise.

5. Thilkë (A. S. thyllic, thylc=the like; O. E. thellich, pl. thelliche), the like, that.

6. That ilkë, that same (A. S. ylc, same ; y is a remnant of an old demonstrative base; -lc=lic=like).

7. Som . . som=one... another.

'He moot ben deed, the king as shal a page;

Som in his bed, som in the depë see,

Som in the large feeld, as men may se.'

(Knightes Tale, ll. 2172–4.)

The superlatives of adverbs always seem to end in -est, and not in -este; cp. p. 76, ll. 1340, 1349, with Il. 1342, 1343, 1344, 1345

1. The Independent forms of the pronouns, which are also used predicatively, are min (pl. mine); oure, oures, ours; thin (pl. thine); youre, youres, yours; hire, heres, hers; here, heres, theirs.

2. The Midland dialect seems to have borrowed the forms oures, youres, &c., from the Northern dialect, in which oure, youre, &c., are not used.

3. The dative cases of the pronouns are used after wel, wo, loth, leef (lief); with impersonal verbs, as 'me mette,' 'him thoughte'; and with some verbs of motion, as 'goth him,' 'he rydeth him.'

4. The pronoun thow is sometimes joined to the verb, as schaltow, wiltow.

5. The Interrogative pronouns are who (gen. whos; dat. and acc. whom), which and what.

(a) Which has often the sense of what, what sort of:

'Which a miracle ther bifel anoon.'

(Knightes Tale, 1817; see Prol. 1. 40.)