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the addition of water to it, it is converted into hydrobromic | with letters for Pope Nicholas I., in which he gave a specious and phosphoric acids.

Iodine and Phosphorus.-When these substances, perfectly dry, are heated together in an exhausted vessel, they act violently, giving out heat, unaccompanied by light. When the proportions are one of phosphorus and about twelve of iodine, the compound is reddish-brown, very fusible, and is probably a sesqui-iodide of phosphorus. It is decomposed by water, and resolved into hydriodic and phosphorous acids.

When the proportions are one of phosphorus and about forty of iodine, a black and less fusible compound is formed, which is resolved by water into hydriodic and phosphoric acids: it is probably composed of two and a half equivalents of iodine and one of phosphorus.

account of his election, and invited the pope to send legates to Constantinople, in order to co-operate with him in putting down the remains of the Iconoclastic heresy. The legates came; and a new council being assembled, A.D. 859, which the legates attended, Ignatius was brought before it, and was again deposed on the score of incapacity and other charges, and obliged to sign his own abdication, with the concurrence of the papal legates, who were either deceived, or bribed, or frightened into compliance by the party of Photius.

The see of Rome had for more than a century past been disputing with that of Constantinople on a question of jurisdiction. During the period of the superiority of the Iconoclasts at the court of Constantinople, the patriarchs of that city, supported by the emperors, had appropriated to themselves the spiritual jurisdiction over the extensive provinces of Illyricum, Macedonia, Achaia, and Sicily, which had formerly been subject to the Roman see. A fresh sub

Selenium and Phosphorus may be made to combine by dropping the selenium into the melted phosphorus. It is an unimportant compound, and is probably a di-seleniuret. Phosphorus may be made to combine with the greater number of the metals; the most important of these com-ject of contention afterwards served to embitter the quarrel. pounds will be found under each particular metal.

The heathen inhabitants of Bulgaria being converted to PHO'SPHORUS, MEDICAL PROPERTIES OF. Christianity by both Latin and Greek missionaries, Photius This elementary substance exists as an essential constituent placed the new churches of Bulgaria under his own jurisboth of vegetable and animal bodies; yet when applied in a diction, a measure which seemed justified by the proximity concentrated and pure state to any organised structure, it of Bulgaria to Constantinople. But the pope alleged that acts upon it as a violent and corrosive poison. Into animal his own missionaries had been first in the field, and that the bodies it is introduced in a diluted and combined state, by king or chief of Bulgaria had sent his own son to Rome, which it is disarmed of its virulence, as an ingredient of which was a sort of acknowledgment of spiritual obedience. many common articles of food. One of the chief sources of In short Nicholas demanded the restitution of the proit is the starch of the cereal grains, such as wheat-flour, in vinces of Illyricum, Macedonia, Achaia, Sicily, and Bulgaria, the ashes of which, when burnt, it amounts to 23 per cent. which Photius stoutly refusing, the pope assembled a council (Prout's Bridgewater Treatise, book iii.); also alliaceous at Rome, A.D. 862, in which he pronounced the election of plants, such as onions, in which it exists as a phosphate of Photius to be illegal, and excommunicated him with all his iron; polygonous and other plants, in which it occurs as a abettors. Photius however remained quietly in his see; phosphate of lime. It also exists not only in the bones and and in the year 866, having assembled a council at Constanother hard parts of animals, but in many of the fluids, es-tinople, he produced five charges, some relating to doctrine, pecially the excretions. Thus it is found in the milts and roes of fishes, the substance of oysters, the yelk of eggs, in the liver, and also the brain, in which organ of the human being it amounts to from 2 to 2 per cent.

Phosphorus is of all stimulants the most powerful and diffusible, but, on account of its activity, highly dangerous. Its poisonous action seems to be connected with its strong affinity for oxygen, by which it is converted into phosphorous and phosphoric acids. Hence when brought in contact with the animal tissues, it abstracts oxygen from them, and produces an eschar, resembling a burn: the phosphorus in this way loses weight and is absorbed, so that the exhalation from the lungs and the cutaneous perspiration are impregnated with the vapour, and, under certain circumstances, luminous. A very small quantity of solid phosphorus, even one grain and a half, has proved fatal. Solutions of phosphorus in oils, fixed or volatile, or in æthers, are still more active and dangerous.

Little use is made of phosphorus or its oleaginous soIntions in medical practice in Great Britain, though in cases of extreme prostration of the nervous system it is not without its value.

In the event of a poisonous dose being taken, bland mucilaginous fluids should be freely administered, followed by magnesia or chalk.

PHO'TIUS was born in the early part of the ninth century, of a patrician family of Constantinople. He studied in that city, and attained great proficiency in all kinds of learning, which was enhanced by an irreproachable morality, He was noticed by the emperor Michael III., who employed him in various important offices. The emperor sent him on a mission to Assyria (probably Persia is meant), and on his return made him proto-spatharius, or commander of the guards, and proto-secretarius and member of the emperor's privy council. Bardas, the uncle and colleague of Michael, was very partial to Photius; and having, on account of some dispute as to jurisdiction, removed and banished the patriarch Ignatius, he determined to put Photius in his place. Photius, being a layman, took all the various clerical orders one after the other in six consecutive days; and after being ordained priest, he was installed in the patriarchal chair, A.D. 853. But the informality of his appointment was too glaring, especially as Ignatius, although threatened and imprisoned in order to force him to abdicate, refused to do so. A subservient council was assembled at Constantinople, A.D. 858, which deposed Ignatius and confirmed the appointment of Photius. Photius sent two bishops to Rome

and others to discipline, against the Roman or Western Church. The charges were proved; and Photius, at the head of his council, excommunicated the pope, and declared him and his abettors to be removed from the communion of orthodox Christians: the charges were:-1, that the Romans fasted on the Sabbath, or seventh day; 2, that they allowed the use of milk and cheese during the first week in Lent; 3, that they forced celibacy on the clergy, the consequence of which, observed Photius, was, that their country swarmed with bastards; 4, that their bishops alone anointed persons with the holy chrism, withholding that power from presbyters; 5, that they had interpolated the Nicene creed on the subject of the Holy Ghost, by adding the word 'filioque,' thus asserting the Holy Ghost to proceed from the Son as well as from the Father, a tenet unknown till the fifth or sixth century, and even then only partially admitted by some of the Western churches.' (Photius, Epistles.)

In the year 867, after the murder of the emperor Michael, Basilius the Macedonian ascended the throne. It is said by some that Photius refused him the sacrament, and reproached him with the murder of his benefactor. However this may be, Basilius soon after deposed Photius, exiled him to Cyprus, and restored Ignatius to his see; and this act was confirmed by a general council assembled at Constantinople, A.D. 869, which was attended by legates of Pope Adrian II., and in which Photius was condemned. This is called the eighth Ecumenical council, having been acknowledged by both the Eastern and Western churches.

Photius in his exile found means to deprecate the hostility of the emperor, and after some years he was allowed to return to Constantinople. He is said to have composed a genealogy of Basilius, in which he made him descend from Tiridates, king of Armenia. At the end of the year 877, the patriarch Ignatius died; and the canonical impediment to the exaltation of Photius no longer existing, he was replaced on the patriarchal see; and Pope John VIII. was induced to approve his nomination, with the view of restoring peace to the church. In 879 Photius assembled a new council at Constantinople, in which the word 'filioque was erased from the creed. The separation however between the two churches was not finally consummated till nearly two centuries later, when the patriarch Michael Cerularius, after a long and angry correspondence with Leo IX., was excommunicated, with all his adherents, by the pope's legates, who solemnly deposited the written act of excommunication on

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1054.

In the year 886, Leo, the son and successor of Basilius, exiled Photius, for reasons not clearly ascertained, into Armenia, where the patriarch died some years after; but the epoch of his death is not exactly known. Photius was of an ambitions and turbulent disposition, and this was his chief failing. Much has been written for and against him; the Greek and Protestant writers being mostly in his favour, and the Roman Catholics against him. All however agree in admitting his very extensive learning, which was truly wonderful for his age, as well as his exquisite critical judg-appreciated by the many, there certainly are defects and

ment.

the grand-altar of Sancta Sophia, and having shaken off the | yet become visible in a photogenic drawing when it is exa
dust from their feet, departed from Constantinople, a.d. mined with a magnifying-glass. If therefore the Daguerro
type should be found susceptible of no further improve
ments, it will still be an invention of the greatest utility to
art, since by means of it facsimiles of the most beautiful
and valuable works, of the finest buildings and statues, of
the most elaborate carvings and designs, furniture, &c.,
may be obtained with great expedition. Nevertheless,
now that the first novelty has worn off, the interest taken
by the public in the discovery has greatly diminished.
This is easily accounted for, since besides that the class of
objects for which it peculiarly recommends itself are not
inconveniences attending photogenic drawings: the principal
one is, that they must be upon metallic tablets with a highly
polished surface; consequently their appearance is not that
of a print or drawing, but of an engraved steel plate, devoid
of any general effect as to light and shade, and producing
a glare offensive to the eye, in order to avoid which it is
necessary to hold the tablet in a particular direction. The
metallic tablets render them expensive, and their material
and fitting-up (as each plate is fixed upon a pannel, and pro-
tected by a glass over it) makes it difficult to keep any num-
ber of them, except in cabinets with shallow drawers for
the purpose. Neither can they be hung up in frames, since
in addition to their appearing only like so many polished
plates of metal, it would be necessary to take them down
whenever it was required to look at them.

The following are his principal works:-1, Myriobiblon, sive Bibliotheca librorum quos legit et censuit Photius,' with a Latin translation, fol., 1653. Imm. Bekker published the Greek text, corrected after a Venetian and three Paris MSS., with an index, Berlin, 1824, 2 vols. 4to. The Bibliotheca is a kind of review of the works which he had read, many of which have been since lost. Photius gives a brief epitome of each, adding his own critical judgment of the merits of the writer, and of his statements and opinions. In this manner Photius reviews more than fifty historians, a still greater number of divines, besides orators, philosophers, grammarians, rhetoricians, &c., in all 279 works which he had read and examined. Fabricius (Biblioth. Græca, v. 35) gives an accurate list of the works noticed by Photius. 2, a Greek Lexicon, published by Hermann, 4to. Leipzig, 1808: another edition by Porson appeared after his death, under the superintendence of Dobree, London, 1822; it is entitled Φωτίου τοῦ Πατριάρχου λέξεων συναγωγή. Ε. Cod. Galeano, descripsit R. Porsonus, 2 vols. 8vo. 3, Epistles,' fol., London, 1651. 4, Nomocanon, being a Collection of the Acts of the Councils, to the Seventh Ecumenical, with the corresponding decrees of the Emperors concerning Ecclesiastical Matters,' Basle, 1652. 5, A treatise, Adversus Latinos de Processione Spiritus Sancti,' and other theological and controversial works, several of which are still unpublished: among others, one against the Paulicians, of which Montfaucon gives some fragments in his Bibliotheca Cosliniana. 6, Amphilochia, being Answers to Questions relative to various Passages in the Scriptures, with an Exposition of the Epistles of St. Paul.'

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PHOTOGENIC DRAWINGS, facsimile representa tions of objects produced according to the recent discovery of M. Daguerre, mechanically by the chemical action of light on a prepared metallic tablet, upon which the images of the objects are thrown by a camera-obscura. Such apparatus is named after its inventor the Daguerrotype, and the process itself either photogeny, photography, or heliography (sundrawing). The invention was first formally communicated to the public by M. Arago, who read an account of the Daguerrotype before the Academy of Sciences, January 7th, 1839. From that moment Daguerre (who was afterwards rewarded by a pension by the government) and his invention engrossed general attention. The discovery was spoken of as little short of miraculous; and as having realised what had long been considered a hopeless desideratum, namely, the giving permanency to the beautiful pictures produced by the camera-obscura, with the exception indeed of colour and motion, on both of which, the latter quite as much as the first, the peculiar charm of the camera-obscura depends; whereas the slightest degree of motion, even that of clouds and trees, is positively injurious to the action of the Daguerrotype, producing indistinctness of form, and blurring those parts of the picture which are affected by the motion. Hence not only powerful sunshine, but perfect stillness in the atmosphere is required for its successful operation, and its practical usefulness becomes limited to the delineation of buildings, sculptures, and other inanimate objects, more especially such as are independent of sunshine, and which may at any time be copied by means of a sufficiently strong artificial light thrown upon them.

Still, though, even after the great improvements since made in it, the powers of the Daguerrotype are so far circumscribed, the invention is highly valuable, because it not only ensures perfect fidelity of likeness where it is most essential, and where it is hardly attainable by the most practised and patient hand and eye, but also gives us the minutest details-those which are imperceptible to the naked eye, and of course cannot possibly be represented upon paper, P. C., No. 1117.

More recently M. Bayard has found out a method of taking similar delineations by means of the camera-obscura upon paper, which, besides having the advantage of being much cheaper, and capable of being kept like prints, are said to be far more pleasing to the eye, and in fact to have nearly the effect of sepia drawings. But on the other hand they fall infinitely short of metallic photogenic drawings; for not only is the outline of objects less distinct, but no more can be shown than what appears to the naked eye, no further details being rendered visible by the use of a convex lens. This invention is however at present quite in its infancy, and may possibly receive great improvements, although it is not at all likely that it will ever be able to accomplish what is the most wonderful and valuable characteristic of the Daguerrotype drawings, namely the delineation of objects as they really exist, with all those minutiae which are invisible to the naked eye.

Photogenic drawings are produced upon plates of copper coated over with silver, which are found to answer better than such as are entirely of the last-mentioned metal. After being washed with a solution of nitric acid, the plate is put into a well-closed box, where it is exposed to the action of iodine, a small quantity of the latter being placed at the bottom of the box with a thin gauze between it and the plate. A layer of ioduret of silver is thus formed on the surface of the plate, and manifests itself by the yellow hue produced on the silver, which shows that the process of giving the plate the sensitive coating on which the action of light delineates objects is completed. Thus prepared, the plate is next placed within a camera-obscura of particular construction, and the delineation of the object is then effected in a very short space of time, but has to be afterwards brought out and rendered distinct by another operation, namely submitting the plate to the action of vapour of mercury. Even then the process is not completed, for the plate has to be plunged into a solution of hyposulphite of soda, and afterwards washed in distilled water, which being done, the impression is fixed, and the plate may be exposed to light with perfect safety. For further details and instructions relative to these different operations, the reader may consult the 'Handbook of Heliography,' London, 1840. But as yet the art is only in its infancy, and very great improvements in it may be looked forward to.

PHOTO METER (literally light-measurer,' from poc and μérpov), the name given to instruments constructed for the purpose of measuring the relative illuminating powers of different sources of light. When light or heat falls upon any substance, it is disposed of either by reflection, absorption, or transmission, or else by two of them, or all three of them combined. If two substances could be found which would reflect, absorb, and transmit calorific rays with the same intensity, and likewise reflect luminous rays equally, but differ in their powers of absorbing and transmitting light, we should then possess the means of at least ascerVOL. XVIII.-Q

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taining whether the absorption of light alone will produce | effects analogous to what is observed to follow the absorption of caloric. For this purpose it would be only necessary to prepare a differential thermometer whose bulbs were of the substances possessing the properties alluded to. The calorific rays accompanying the incident light would, by acting equally upon the two bulbs, produce no change in the indications of the instrument, and the only alteration, if any, which could ensue, would arise from the unequal absorption of light by the two bulbs. This alteration however, when observed, though it might be considered a correct measure of the quantity absorbed, could not be taken for a measure of the quantity or brightness of the incident light, unless it could be further shown that the quantity absorbed by the same substance is proportional to the quantity of incident light, whatever may be its nature, that is, whether it be solar light, gas light, &c.

ment was placed anywhere between them, and approached towards one or the other, until it was found that the position of the fluid in the tube was the same as when the instrument was not under the influence of the lights. Supposing the whole of the calorific rays and none of the luminous rays to have been intercepted by the glass, this position determined the point at which the intensity of the two lights was the same; and hence, since the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of the distance from its source [LIGHT, p. 472], it followed that at equal distances from their respective sources their intensities were directly proportional to the squares of their observed distances from the instrument.

More recently the same gentleman constructed a very simple instrument which affords an almost unerring measure of the relative brightness of two lights, provided they are of the same colour. The principle originated with Bouguer, who published it in his Traité d'Optique,' in 1760. The annexed figure represents a vertical section of the in

A

B

C

E

D

F

The photometer invented by Leslie differs from the instrument we have supposed merely in its being in some respects less deserving of the name. It consists of a differential thermometer having one of its bulbs of plain transparent glass, the other of the same material coated either with Indian-ink or black enamel, and is described by its author in the articleMeteorology' in the Encyclopædia Britannica, wherein he observes,' The rays which fall on the clear ball pass through it without suffering obstruction; but those which strike the dark ball are stopped and absorbed at its surface, where, assuming a latent form, they act as heat. This heat will continue to accumulate till its further increase comes to be counter-strument. It consists of a rectangular box open at both balanced by an opposite dispersion, caused by the rise of temperature which the ball has come to acquire. At the point of equilibrium therefore the constant accessions of heat derived from the action of the incident light are exactly equalled by the corresponding portions of it again abstracted in the subsequent process of cooling. But in still air the rate of cooling is, within moderate limits, proportional to the excess of the temperature of the heated surface above that of the surrounding medium. Hence the space through which the coloured liquid sinks in the stem will measure the momentary impressions of light, or its actual intensity.' Allowing that the light incident upon the clear bail is wholly transmitted, and that that which strikes the dark ball is wholly absorbed, assumes a latent form, and then acts as heat, it by no means follows that the effect produced upon the instrument was wholly or even chiefly attributable to the absorption of light, since we learn from Leslie's own experiments (Heat, p. 87) that the calorific rays which accompany the incident light would be more abundantly absorbed by the dark than by the light ball. This has since been so satisfactorily established by the observations of Thomson and others, that, as a measurer of light, the instrument may be regarded as useless.

ends and blackened upon its inner surface. On the top is a long narrow rectangular slip AB, covered with tissue or oiled paper. Within are two sheets of plane looking-glass, CD and CE, cut from the same slip to ensure uniformity of reflexion. Each sheet has the same width as the box, and its length equal to the hypothenuse of a right angled isosceles triangle, whose side is the height of the box. Their reflecting surfaces are turned towards the open ends of the box, and their upper extremities rest against each other along a line, which in the figure is projected into the point C, and which divides the aperture AB into two equal parts, separated by a narrow strip of black card to prevent the mingling of the lights reflected from the two planes. In using the instrument, it is placed between the lights whose intensities are to be compared, so that they may be reflected from CD and CE upon the tissue AB. It is then approached nearer to one or the other until, to an eye situated above AB, the two portions AC and BC appear equally illuminated, which, on account of the immediate proximity of AC and BC, may be determined with tolerable correctness, the colour of the two lights being supposed the same. The dis tances of the lights from the vertical CF being measured and squared, give the direct ratio of the intensities as before.

It remains to notice a mode of comparing the illuminating powers of two lights suggested by Count Rumford, which is remarkable for the facility with which it may be applied, and the simplicity of the requisite apparatus, nothing more being needed than a smooth surface of small extent and of a light uniform colour, and a blackened stick for throwing a shadow. The surface is illuminated by the two lights experimented upon, which are to be so placed, that when the stick is interposed between them and the surface, the two shadows may be nearly in contact, which will enable the eye to decide whether they are of equal depth, and will at the same time ensure the intercepting of rays equally inclined to the surface. So long as the shadows are of unequal depth, one of the lights must be brought nearer to or retired farther from the surface till an equality of depth is obtained, and then the squares of the perpendicular distances of the lights from the surface give the ratio of their intensities. If an equality between the inclinations of the intercepted rays to the surface cannot be obtained, then, when the two shadows are of the same depth, the intensities of the lights will be directly proportional to the squares of their perpendicular distances from the surface, and inversely propor tional to the sines of the inclinations of the intercepted rays to the surface.

The defects of Leslie's photometer were to a considerable extent obviated by Mr. Ritchie, the late professor of natural philosophy in the London University College, and then rector of the academy of Tain, who, in 1825, communicated to the Royal Society the description of a new photometer. In order to intercept the calorific rays accompanying the light experimented upon, he transmitted the latter through a thick circular disk of glass into a metallic air-light cylinder, the diameter of which was considerable compared with its depth. The axis of the cylinder was placed horizontally, and the aperture covered by the glass was the only one through which the light was admitted. Across the interior of the cylinder was stretched a circular sheet of dark paper, which absorbed the transmitted light, and, as was supposed, thereby converted it into heat, which became sensible by its expanding the air within the cylinder. A second cylinder of the same form and construction was placed by the side of the first so that the line of axes might coincide, but with the aperture for the admission of light turned in the contrary direction, and in that position they were connected by a bent thermometer tube containing a coloured fluid, which served to prevent the air of one cylinder mixing with that of the other. So long as the air in the two cylinders possessed the same degree of elasticity, the level of the fluid in the two branches of the tube was of course the same; and a variation of level indicated a variation in the elasticity of the two bulks of air, The last two methods are theoretically perfect, when arising from the more energetic action of the medium ad- applied to lights of the same colour; those which precede, mitted through one aperture than through the other. To though independent of the colour of the light, rest upon compare the relative intensities of two lights, the instru-hypotheses which, if not untrue, are unestablished.

(For further information the reader may consult Lambert's Photometria; the article Light' in the Encylopædia Metropolitana, by Sir John Herschel; The Edinburgh Philos. Trans., x., part 2: The Transactions of the Royal Society, 1825; and Brewster's Journal, 1825, ii., pp. 321 and 339; iii., p. 105: and 1830, iii., new series, p. 284.) PHRAATES. [PARTHIA.]

PHRAGMITES, or the Reed, is a plant formerly regarded as a species of Arundo, but now separated from that genus on account of its lower floret being male while the others are hermaphrodite, and its rachis being fringed with long silky hairs. It is a tall plant with annual stems and a perennial root, and is found exclusively in places overflowed even during summer. In such situations it occurs all through Europe, and is common in Siberia, Japan, North America, and even New Holland, forming thick coverts, and yielding an abundance of stout durable grass of great value for the purpose of thatching the roofs of buildings. This is undoubtedly the phragmites (ppayμirns) of the Greeks. A second species is said to grow in Egypt, and a third in the Isle of France; the two latter species are however little known.

PHRAGMO CERAS, Broderip's name for a genus of camerated shells found hitherto only in a fossil state. Generic Character.-Animal unknown.

Shell incurved and compressed, more or less conical; septa entire at their edges, crossed externally by the lines of growth; siphuncle near the inner margin; aperture contracted at the middle, its outer extremity produced into a subcylindrical beak.

This genus is distinguished from Orthoceras by being curved, and having a nearly marginal siphuncle; and also from all the species of that genus except O. piriforme, by the form of the aperture, which further distinguishes it from Cyrtoceras of Goldfuss, the aperture of which is round.

Three species, P. arcuatum, P. ventricosum (Orthoceratites ventricosus? Steininger), and P. compressum, from the lower Ludlow rock, are figured in Murchison's great work on the Silurian System; where another species, P. nautileum, is also figured with a ? as to the genus. PHRANZA. [BYZANTINE HISTORIANS.] PHRAORTES. [MEDIA.]

PHRASE, in Music, a succession of sounds either in melody or harmony, expressing an unbroken sense more or less complete, and terminating in a pause (repos), ¿.e. a comparatively long note or a rest: thus forming a cadence more or less perfect.

Such is Rousseau's definition of a term concerning which no two writers are agreed, and, in our opinion, a better cannot be given without entering much more at large into the subject than the nature of this work will allow. Those who desire further information on a matter chiefly interesting to composers, may find much in An Essay on Music,' by the Rev. W. Jones, F.R.S.; in Riepel's Anfangsgründe, &c. (Elements of Musical Composition); in Kollmann On Harmony-who uses the word Period instead of Phrase; and, above all, in Reicha's Traité de Mélodie, 2nd edit., Paris, 1832.

viduals, the several mental functions are manifested. Even
in the earliest period of childhood, and before education can
be imagined to have exercised any influence on the mind,
children exhibit the most varied dispositions-each presents
some predominant propensity, or evinces a singular aptness
in some study or pursuit; and it is a matter of daily obser-
vation that every one has his peculiar talent or propensity.
But it is difficult to imagine how this could be the case,
if the manifestation of each faculty depended on the whole
of the brain; different conditions of the whole mass might
affect the mind generally, depressing or exalting all its fune-
tions in an equal degree, but could not permit one faculty
to be strongly and another weakly manifested. 3, The plu-
rality of organs in the brain is supported by the phenomena
of some forms of mental derangement. It is not usual for
all the mental faculties in an insane person to be equally
disordered; it often happens that the strength of some is
increased, while that of others is diminished; and in many
cases one function only of the mind is deranged, while all
the rest are performed in a natural manner. 4, The same
opinion is supported by the fact that the several mental fa-
culties are developed to their greatest strength at different
periods of life, some being exercised with great energy in
childhood, others only in adult age; and that as their energy
decreases in old age, there is not a gradual and equal dimi-
nution of power in all of them at once, but, on the contrary,
a diminution in one or more, while others retain their full
strength, or even increase in power. 5, The plurality of
cerebral organs appears to be indicated by the phenomena of
dreams, in which only a part of the mental faculties are at
rest or asleep, while the others are awake, and, it is presumed,
are exercised through the medium of the parts of the brain
appropriated to them. 6, It is stated that the examination
of the brains of individuals, each remarkable for some
peculiar propensity or talent, has demonstrated a constant
correspondence in the development of a certain portion of
the bram; and that thus the results of the observations upon
which phrenology was first founded by Dr. Gall, exactly
coincide with and confirm the arguments by which its
truths may, à priori, be made to seem probable. Lastly,
pain has sometimes been felt in an organ when the faculty
with which it is presumed to be connected has been greatly
excited; and when a faculty has been morbidly manifested
during life, disease has sometimes been found to have
affected the corresponding part of the brain.

The preceding arguments for the existence, in the general
mass of the brain, of several organs or instruments for the
manifestation of the different powers of the mind, form also
the basis of the rules by which those powers which may be
called primitive, or original, are determined. Every power
of the mind is regarded by phrenologists as a primitive
faculty, and is considered to be manifested through the
medium of a separate organ, which, 1, exists in one kind of
animal and not in another; 2, which varies in the sexes of
the same species; 3, which is not proportionate to the other
faculties of the same individual; 4, which does not mani-
fest itself simultaneously with the other faculties, that is,
which appears or disappears earlier or later than they;
5, which may act or repose singly; 6, which individually is
propagated in a distinct manner from parents to children;
and 7, which singly may preserve its proper state of health
or be affected by disease.

PHRENOLOGY (from pýv, mind, and Xóyoç, discourse) is, in the words of Dr. Spurzheim, the doctrine of the special faculties of the mind, and of the relations between their manifestations and the body, particularly the brain. Without In accordance with these rules Gall enumerated nearly entering upon the question of the nature of the mind, or of thirty primitive mental faculties, which are admitted, with the number or nature of its original faculties, it may be admore or less of modification, by all the phrenologists of the mitted as the result of all observation, and a fact on which present day; and their number has been augmented by Spurznearly all physiologists are agreed, that the brain is the heim to thirty-five. These faculties Spurzheim divided into part of the body by means of which all the powers or facul- moral, or affective, and intellectual. The affective faculties ties of the mind are manifested. The fundamental prin- or feelings he again divided into propensities, including all ciples of phrenology, and those in which it chiefly differs those which produce only desires or inclinations, and sentifrom other psychological systems are, that the manifestationments, including such as not only produce a desire to act, of each of the several faculties of the mind depends on a but are combined with some other emotion or affection particular part of the brain, and that, cæteris paribus, the which is not mere propensity. The intellectual faculties degree or strength in which each faculty is manifested in also he divided into the perceptive and the reflective. The each individual, depends on the size of its appropriated por- subjoined figures and the references to them will at once tion of the brain, or (as it is termed) its organ. indicate this division of the mental faculties, and the situa tions on the exterior of the head which are supposed to correspond with the portions of the brain belonging to cach, according to the system of Dr. Spurzheim. We have also added the figures by which the several organs were marked by Mr. Combe, in the two first editions of his 'System of Phrenology;' in the later editions he has followed the enumeration of Dr. Spurzheim.

The first principle, that of the plurality of organs in the brain, is supported, 1, by the analogy of the other compound organs or systems in the body, in which each part has its special function; as, for example, in the digestive system, in which the stomach, liver, and other organs perform each their separate share in the common result of digestion of the food; 2, by the different degrees in which, in different indi

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1. Amativeness is the mental faculty which produces the propensity to physical love, or, as it was termed by Dr. Gall, the instinct of propagation.* Its organ is the cerebellum, and its energy is indicated by the extent of the space on each side of the head between the mastoid process, immediately behind the ear and the spine of the occipital bone.

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2. Philoprogenitiveness is the faculty which produces the feeling of love towards offspring. The evidence by which this is admitted as a fundamental faculty of the mind may afford an example of the application of the seven rules already given for determining them. There are many animals which take no care of their progeny, as reptiles, and fish, and, among birds, the cuckoo. In many species of animals the females alone take care of their offspring, as among cats, cattle, sheep, &c., and in general, even when both parents protect their young, the attachment of the mother is the stronger. The love of offspring bears no proportion to the other mental faculties, but is shared alike by men and brutes, and among the former is often felt as intensely by the most degraded as by the most exalted of the species. The love of offspring is sometimes, on the contrary, almost completely suppressed. Cases of insanity have not unfrequently occurred in which parental love was lost or greatly diminished; while others are recorded in which the love of offspring has been almost the only feeling which remained unimpaired. The seat of this organ is directly above the middle of that of amativeness; and the energy the faculty is indicated by the general prot berance of the occipital bone. Though placed in the middle of the head, this organ is of course, like all the others, double, and extends to an equal distance on each side of the median line. 3. Inhabitiveness.-The existence of this, the propensity to inhabit particular regions or countries, which produces the love of home, and which determines in each species the dwelling and mode of life which is best adapted to it, is regarded as doubtful. Dr. Gall placed in this situation the organ of pride in man, and that of the instinct in animals which prompts them to seek and inhabit the heights of mountains or to fly high in the air, believing that faculties which are merely physical in brutes may become moral in man, and that there is an analogy between the feelings which prompt to the pursuit of moral and those which excite the desire of physical elevation. Mr. Combe and many of the Edinburgh school of phrenology name this the organ of concentrativeness, believing that it corresponds to the faculty of maintaining two or more powers in simultaneous and combined activity, so that they may be directed towards one object, a faculty disposing to seden tary pursuits, and a close and steady attention, especially by meditation, to a given object. At present it is agreed that the evidence is insufficient for the complete establishment of either of these opinions.

4. Adhesiveness is the propensity to attachment or friendship, by which individuals of the same or different kinds are induced to associate together, and which causes men to be attached to the various objects amongst which they are placed. Its objects are disinterested friendship, marriage, society, and attachment in general. The organ of this faculty is believed to be situated at No. 4, immediately above and to the outer side of that of philoprogenitive

ness.

5. Combativeness is the natural disposition which men and animals feel in various degrees to quarrel or fight. In order to discover its organ, Dr. Gall is said to have been in the habit of calling together boys from the streets to endea vour to make them fight. There were of course some whe were fond of it, and others who were peaceable and timid: in the former the part of the head marked 5 was prominent; in the latter it was flattened or depressed. The same difference is said to exist in the formation of this part, in cor respondence with the strength of this disposition in the

It may be necessary to mention that the chief modifications introduced into the system of Gall by Spurzheim (whose arrangement is here adopted as being received by the great majority of phrenologists in this country) are expressed in the differences of their terms. Gall designated the organs according to the actions to which he believed their predominance led; Spurzheim according to the nature of the faculties. Thus that which Gall called the organ of murder, Spurzheim named the organ of destructiveness, observing that, though many in whom this organ was greatly developed had committed murder, yet many others, though having a propensity to destruction, had never destroyed human life nor felt any inclination to it. So also Gall's organ of theft is named by Spurzheim the organ of Acquisitiveness, a faculty which gives the propensity to acquire without reference to the means, which, in a man with largely developed conscientiousness, would be honest, but in one without the latter faculty would be theft or fraud of some kind. It will be seen that in Spurzheim's nomencla ture the sphere of activity of each faculty, as he terms it, is much more extended than in Gall's. See further, GALL; SPURZHEIM.]

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