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northern latitude,' says Sloane, in his 'Voyage to Jamaica,' 'I first saw what the seamen call a Caravel, or Portuguese man-of-war, which seems to be a zoophytum, or of a middle nature between a plant and an animal; it is of that kind of the soft fishes called Urtica, from their stinging quality; and to me seems different from any described by any natural historian. I shall call it Urtica marina, soluta, purpurea, oblonga, cirrhis longissimis; and he figures it with the crest or lamina expanded as A. carvell.,' plate iii., fig. 5.

Locomotive organs complex and vesicular.

Physsophora.

Generic Character-Body more or less elongated, cylindroïd, hydatiform in its anterior part, provided below with two series of vesicular diversiform bodies, with a regular aperture, and behind with a variable number of very diverse eirrhiform productions, two of which are longer and more complex than others; mouth at the extremity of the hydatiform part; anus terminal; organ of generation? (De Blainville.)

Example, Physsophora Muzonema.

M. de Blainville states that the Physsophore differ from the Physali in swimming or floating in a vertical position, the aëriferous pouch being above and the cirrhiferous productions below. The distinction of the species appears to him to depend especially on the number and form of the natatory organs.

PHY

Diphysa.

(DONANC

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1. Rhizophysa filiformis; 2, Physsophora Muzonema. P. C., No. 1120.

1, a portion of Apolemia Urania. za part still more highly magnited; b, a single sucker. VOL. XVIII.-T

tentacula, are joined to these vesicular parts to compose the Species provided with two sorts of locomotive organs, the whole apparent organization of the animal. Cuvier adds anterior ones hollow, the posterior solid. that it is not observed whether they have a mouth well distinguishable as such. (Règne Animal, 1830.)

Apolemia.

Generic Character.-Body very much elongated, cylindrical, vermiform, provided anteriorly with many hollow natatory organs in two rows, and behind with solid squamous organs, between which come forth tentaculiform cirrhi, furnished with vermiform suckers.

Example, Apolemia Urania.

Stephanomia.

Generic Character.-Body in general very much elongated, cylindrical, vermiform, covered throughout its extent, except in the lower median line, with squamous natatory organs, full and dispersed in transverse bands, between which come forth, and especially inferiorly, long, very much diversified cirrhiform productions, mingled with the ovaries. Orifices of the intestinal canal terminal. (De Blainville.) Example, Stephanomia Amphitrides, Péron et Lesueur (Voyage aux Terres Austr., p. 45, pl. 29, fig. 5).

Protomedea

Generic Character.-Body free, floating, cylindrical, fistulous, very long, provided above with an imbricated assemblage of gelatinous bodies (on two alternate rows) which are full and hippopodiform, and throughout the rest of its length with filamentous, cirrhous, diversiform productions. Mouth proboscidiform, at the extremity of a sort of vesicular stomach.

Example, Protomedea lutea.

Rhodophysa Helianthus. PHYSSO'PHORA. [PHYSOGRADA.] PHYTO'CRINUS. [ENCRINITES, vol. ix., p. 391.] PHYTOLACCA, a genus of tropical or subtropical herbaceous plants, with erect or occasionally twining stems, a thickish turnip-shaped root, alternate undivided broad leaves, and leafless erect racemes of flowers succeeded by deep purple fruits. They have a five-parted calyx, no corolla, from five to thirty stamens inserted into a fleshy disk, and the pistil consists of several unilocular distinct carpels united at the base or along the whole inner angle. The fruit is an umbonate depressed berry, with solitary seeds whose embryo is turned round mealy albumen. Phytolacca decandra, a species found wild in Virginia, where it is called Pocan, whence the vulgar name of Poke applied to this species, has a root which acts as a powerful emetic, but its exhibition is attended with narcotic effects: its berries are also reported to possess the same quality; they stain an intense purple colour, and are said to be employed in Portugal as a means of improving the appearance of inferior red wines. Notwithstanding the acridity of its leaves, this plant, when very young, is said to be eaten in the United States as asparagus; and Dr. Royle relates that he found P. acinosa, a Himalayan species, employed in the same manner in the north of India, to be very palatable when

boiled.

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Protomedea lutea.

Rhodophysa.

Generic Character.- Body short, cylindrical, fleshy, swollen above into an aëriferous bladder, and provided below with a variable number of gelatinous bodies, which are full, costiform, forming a single transverse series, and with a variable number of filamentous diversiform productions. Mouth and anus terminal. (De Blainville.) Example, Rhizophysa Helianthus.

These animals form Cuvier's second order of Acalephans, under the name of Hydrostatic Acalephans. He characterises them as being recognised by one or two ordinary vesicles filled with the air, by whose means they are suspended in the water. Appendages singularly numerous and varied in form, some of which probably serve as suckers, others perhaps as ovaries, and some, longer than the others, as

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plants, named after the subject of our last article, but whose limits and position in a natural series are unsettled. According to most writers they are regarded as apetalous plants and allies of the Chenopodiaceous and Polygonaceous orders, from which their distinct ovaries chiefly distinguish them. But Endlicher, in his recent arrangement of plants, probably influenced by the form of their embryo, and by the plurality of the carpels, considers them as related on the one hand to the Caryophyllaceous, and on the other to the Malvaceous orders. Notwithstanding the apparent difference between these two stations, it is probable that both are correct, and that Phytolaccaceae are really plants connecting Chenopodiacea and Caryophyllaceae. If so, they furnish a new proof of the badness of the fundamental divisions proposed for Exogens by both De Candolle and Jussieu. With the exception of Phytolacca, no plants of this order appear to be of much importance to man; their properties seem to be generally acrid.

PHYTOSAURUS, Jaeger's name for a genus of fossil Sanrians. Two species are recorded, Phytosaurus Cubicodon, and Ph. Cylindricodon, both from the dolomitic sandstone (Keuper formation).

PHYTO TOMA. [MUSOPHAGIDE, vol. xvi., p. 28.] PHYTOTOMINE. [MUSOPHAGIDÆ, vol. xvi., p. 28.] PHYTOZOA'RIA. This is the general term employed by M. Ehrenberg to include the numerous species and genera of minute animals living in water, for which by other writers the titles of Infusoria and Microzoaria are preferred. There are two grand divisions, or classes as Ehrenberg calls them, of the Phytozoaria, viz. Polygastrica and Rotatoria or Rotifera; and as, judging from some examination, and in accordance with many modern writers, we consider these classes to be really and widely distinct, so as to deserve to be placed in very different parts of the scale of animal organization, we treat the subject under those terms respectively. [INFUSORIA; MICROZOARIA; POLYGASTRICA; ROTATORIA.]

PHYZE'LIA, one of the divisions of the Terebelles of Savigny (Amphitrite, Cuv., part; Annelides Tubicoles of Cuv.).

PIA MATER. [BRAIN.]

xxxi. 10.) After the defeat and death of Hamilcar by the Roman prætor L. Furius Purpureus, the colony of Placentia was restored. Tacitus (Histor., ii, 21) mentions Placentia as being gallantly defended by Spurinna, a captain of Vitellius, against the attack of Cacina, one of Otho's generals, on which occasion a splendid amphitheatre, which stood outside of the walls, was destroyed. It was near Placentia that the Roman troops under Aurelianus were defeated in a great battle by the Marcomanni, who had invaded Upper Italy, but Aurelianus afterwards defeated and exterminated the invaders, A.D. 271.

In modern history Piacenza is mentioned as one of the independent Lombard cities. It afterwards had its lords or tyrants of the families of Pelavicino or Pallavicino, Scotti, and Landi. It next fell under the dominion of the Visconti dukes of Milan. After the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, A.D. 1447, and the establishment of an ephemeral republic at Milan, the citizens of Piacenza revolted against the Milanese, and placed themselves under the protection of Venice. But Francesco Sforza, being appointed commander of the Milanese, retook Piacenza, in December, 1447, when the town was given up to pillage. The soldiers of Sforza committed all sorts of violence and cruelty, sparing neither age nor sex; even the churches were not respected. The Milanese historians Corio and Simoneta fully relate those atrocities. From that time Piacenza never recovered its former prosperity: it remained subject to the Sforza dukes of Milan, was taken by the French under Louis XII., and retaken from the French by pope Julius II., after which it remained subject to the popes, together with Parma, until 1545, when pope Paul III. gave it to his son Pier Luigi Farnese. From that time it has formed part of the duchy of Parma.

Piacenza has produced many distinguished men: the scholar Valla, pope Gregory X., Cardinal Alberoni, Gio. Battista Porta, the economist Gioia, the philologist Giordani, and others who are noticed by Poggiali, Memorie per la Storia Letteraria di Piacenza,' 2 vols. 4to., 1778; and in the 'Memorie Storiche della Città di Piacenza,' by the same writer. A description of the buildings and other objects worthy of notice was published in 1828: Descrizione dei Monumenti e Pitture di Piacenza,' 8vo.

PIAHAU, or PIAUHAU, the name assigned to certain Cotingas (Ampelis, Linn.), whose bill is more strong and more pointed than the ordinary Cotingas. The Piauhaus are so called from their cry, and are very insectivorous. Vieillot has distinguished them by the generic name of Querula. [MUSCICAPIDE, vol. xvi., p. 11.]

PIACENZA (Placentia), a town in the duchy of Parma, and the second in importance in that state, is situated about half a mile from the southern bank of the Po, and two miles east of the confluence of the Trebbia with that river, in a fine plain bounded on the south by well cultivated hills. The town is surrounded by walls and ditches, and has a citadel, which, according to a stipulation of the Congress of Vienna of 1815, is garrisoned by Austrian troops. PIANO-FORTE, a keyed musical instrument, variously The streets are wide and straight. The principal square in formed and under different denominations, such as grand, front of the ducal palace is adorned with two equestrian square, and upright. The first notion of the square pianobronze statues of dukes Ranuccio and Alessandro Farnese. forte was taken from the clavichord by a German mechanic Piacenza abounds in fine buildings, the principal of which of the name of Viator, about ninety or a hundred years are-1, the ducal palace, commenced after the design of ago; but, for want of friends or funds, he never became Vignola, but not finished; 2, the Podesteria, or town-house, known as a maker. The invention however was followed a Gothic building of the thirteenth century; 3, the cathe-up by other musical instrument makers of the same nation, dral, a handsome Gothic structure of the twelfth century, with fresco paintings by Guercino and Luigi Caracci; 4, S. Sisto, a handsome church, richly adorned; 5, the fine church of S. Agostino; 6, Santa Maria di Campagna, which belongs to the Franciscan friars, has some fine paintings. The town library contains 30,000 volumes; the new theatre, and the school of design and architecture, are also worthy

of notice.

Piacenza contains 25,000 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in the agricultural products of the country. The establishments for public instruction consist of a superior school, or lyceum, with professors of law and medicine; a secondary or grammar school, the college Alberoni for boarders, a school of the fine arts, an institution for the education of young ladies, and several elementary schools for boys and girls.

Placentia is first mentioned as being a Roman colony, settled at the same time as Cremona, in the country conquered from the Gauls, in the year 224 B.C. (Livy, Epitome, xx.) In the second Punic war it was besieged unsuccessfully by Hasdrubal while on his march to join his brother Hannibal; but after the end of that war it was taken and destroyed by a band of Ligurians and Gauls, headed by Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, who had remained behind after the defeat of Hasdrubal, and had succeeded in organising the mountaineers of the Ligurian Apennines, and leading them against the Romans. (Livy,

who all left their clavichords and harpsichords for the new instrument, the piano-forte. Thus we have Zumpe, Tabel, Schudi, Kirkman, Broadwood, Stodart, Schoene, Buntebart, Pohlman, Pether, Beck, Garcha, Ganer, and a host of others.

The grand piano-forte is supposed to be of earlier date than the square piano-forte, and is said to have been the invention of a German musician of the name of Schröder, or, as others say, of Christofali, a harpsichord-maker of Padua. The first maker at all known in this country was a German of the name of Backers, but we are not aware that success attended his exertions with the solid advantages which were enjoyed by his contemporary Zumpe, who realised an ample fortune, and retired. The place of his retirement we well remember, and have heard good report of his cheerful glass and well-filled pipe, without which, in those days, a German did not acknowledge that he lived. The grand piano-forte retains the shape of the instrument from which it was taken, the harpsichord; and although that shape has been much condemned, we have never been able to see any other objection to it than its largeness; it is the natural outline of the instrument, and we do not think that a better form for it will ever be devised.

The square piano-forte, we have said, was taken from the clavichord, but it retains only its shape, with the same disposition of the strings and keys; their actions have no similarity. The action of the clavichord was simply a piece of

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Fig. 3.

d

brass pin wire, which was placed vertically at a point where | Fig. 3, exhibiting all the Varieties of the modern Square it could be struck or pressed against its proper string, the Piano-forte as respects the Action. right-hand division of which was free to vibrate, whilst the left-hand was muffled by a piece of cloth, the object of which was to damp or stop the string, which it did the instant the finger was taken off the key. The touch of the clavichord was peculiar, partaking both of the harpsichord and the organ; in other words, both struck and pressed, and the pressure could be so varied as to produce a kind of tremblant effect. The tones were feeble, soft, and melancholy, and better suited to the student, the composer, or the solitary, than any purposes of social amusement.

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Fig. 1.

a

d

b

dd

a, Key. b, Brass pin wire. c, String. d, Cloth woven between the strings as a damper.

The action of the square piano-forte, on its first introduction, consisted of a key, a lifter, a hammer, and a damper. The key was the same as that of the clavichord. The lifter was a brass wire, with a piece of hide leather as a head, which was covered with a piece of soft leather as a finish. This lifter, when in motion, struck the hammer against the string, and thus produced the tone of the instrument. The damper followed the performer, and stopped the vibrations as quickly as the finger was removed from the key. (See fig. 2.) The tone of this piano-forte was thin and wiry, the hammer having only one slight covering of sheep-skin leather upon it.

Fig. 2.

a

c

d

a, Key. b, Hopper, by which the escape of the hammer is effected. c, String. 9, Check.

d, Irish damper. dd, Crank damper. e, Under hammer. f, Hammer.

The grand piano-forte, as above observed, was the invention of Schröder or Christofali, manufactured by Backers, and retains the shape of the instrument from which it was taken, the harpsichord. Here again we have two instruments alike in form, but unlike in almost every other circumstance; for their action, their tones, and the style in which they are played upon, are all entirely different. The action of the harpsichord was simply a key and what was called a jack, which was a piece of pear-tree with a small moveable tongue of holly, through which a cutting of crowquill was passed to touch the string when the jack was in action; the tone produced by this contrivance was a kind of scratch with a sound at the end of it (see fig. 4). Fig. 4. Harpsichord Jack.

e

a

C

Fig. 4.

a, Key. b, Lifter. c. String. d, Damper. e, Damper stick or mopstick. f. Hammer. g. Lifter. h, Brass damper.

a

a, Jack. b, Tongue. c, Quill. d, Bristle spring. e, Cloth damper. The action of a grand piano-forte consisted of a key, a lever, a hammer, a button, a check, and a damper, with rails and sockets to connect them. By this combination of parts, every musical intention known or desired at that time was perfectly attainable, and with admirable effects by Mozart, Haydn, Cramer, and others (see fig. 5). But we have now new and more severe judges to encounter: former actions are no longer sufficient; new effects are to be given, and new powers are called for. Fortunately, these things have been accomplished, for new actions have risen up in abundance, and we have only to choose between them. The more or less of excellence will, doubtless, occasionally puzzle the amateur, but some ready-fingered friend or acquaintance may be called in, and the difficulty is instantly removed by a single cadence on the instrument desired; whether major or minor is quite immaterial.

This rude idea of a piano-forte continued in use for many years, and the first improvement upon it was introduced by Longman and Broderip, who brought out a patented invention having two additional parts in the action, namely, the hopper and the under-hammer, as they were called (see fig. 3). This patent was followed by another introduced by Clementi and Co., the burden of which simply was an improvement on the damper. It was called the Irish patent, from its having been the invention of an Irishman of the name of Southwell; but it had simplicity only to recommend it, was found inconvenient, and shortly afterwards was superseded by what is now called the crank damper. We cannot give the name of the inventor of this improvement; it became so instantaneously general, that the inventor was lost sight of in the crowd of makers who adopted his invention. It is still in use, and is acknowledged to be a good and suffcient plan. The damper used by Messrs. Broadwood previously to the introduction of the crank damper was made in brass (see fig. 2), but by whom invented we do not know. We now come to the last addition which has been made to the action of the square piano-forte, the check. This member was borrowed from the grand piano-forte, and is so acknowledged by the name given to those square piano- No musical instrument is so universally admired as the fortes which have it; for they are always called, par ex-piano-forte. Its compass, whether six octaves, six and a cellence, grand-square piano-fortes. The check certainly is a most important part of a piano-forte, and the best of actions is nothing without it. The check is placed behind the hammer, nearly at the end of the key; where, after the blow has been given, it catches the tail of the hammer, and holds it till another blow is required (see fig. 3). For further information as to the square piano-forte, we refer to the diagrams, which we hope will be found sufficient for any information that may be required. As an instrument, we think less of the square piano-forte than any other: it has neither the touch, the tone, nor the appearance of either the grand or the upright.

half, or seven, is sufficient for all purposes of musical composition, and may really be considered a miniature orchestra. The smaller instruments have generally only six octaves, the grands have six octaves and a half; seven octaves we have not yet learned to admire. The strings of the early piano-fortes were partly of steel and partly of brass, the treble notes of steel, and the lower notes of brass, a few of which, in the bass, were over-lapped or covered, rather open, with plated copper-wire to give them more gravity according to the length attainable in the instrument. But modern piano-fortes have steel wire throughout, with about an octave in the bass closely lapped with unwashed copper

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Hammer.

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the lever passes the notch, it is caught by m, and the hammer is sustained at
m, n, Block passed through the hammer butt.
at the back of n, and pressing upon the front of it; by which arrangement, when
o, Spring fixed
the given height.
termines the height it shall rise.
p, Another spring, which regulates the action of o, aud de-

Fig. 7. Messrs. Collard and Collard's new Patent Grand
Piano-forte Action; the Invention of Mr. George
Stewart.

a

Fig. 7.

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a, Key. b, Hopper. c, Button. d, Hopper spring. e. Hammer. f. Check. g, Hammer rail. h, Damper. ii, Rail and socket. k, Crank for damper.

Damper pedal lifter.

wire. The strings which are now used in piano-fortes are considerably larger than those which were formerly used; the advantages of which are durability and firmness. The steel-wire now in use is the manufacture of Mr. Webster of Penns, near Birmingham, and is greatly superior to the once-famed German wire, now no more in esteem with English manufacturers, from the bad quality of the metal and the very imperfect manner in which it was drawn: when perfectly round, which it ought always to be, it was generally too soft; and when sufficiently hard, it was scarcely ever well manufactured, from which circumstance it was constantly false in vibration. Stops and pedals are more or less adopted in different countries. Stops can scarcely be said to be used at the present day; they properly belong to the middle age of piano-forte making, and were placed in the instrument on the left hand of the performer. The damperstop and the buff-stop were the most common; the damperstop raised the dampers from the strings, which gave continuation to the tones, and the buff-stop raised a piece of soft buff leather up to the strings, and gave the instrument somewhat the tone of the harp. Pedals are much esteemed by some performers and little by others; in foreign pianofortes we find many pedals, but in the English we have scarcely ever more than two-one for piano effects, and the other for forte. This pedal, the forte, is an effective pedal, and not at all injurious to the mechanism of the instrument; we cannot say as much of the piano pedal, for, by passing the action to one string, it is not only straining to the centres of the hammers, but is also very apt to disturb the tuning of the unisons, by which an instrument is often unfairly tested as regards its standing, and a more frequent application to the tuner is required. In lieu of this pedal, some makers have introduced a soft substance, wool or leather, between the hammers and the strings, by which somethingh, Butt for the hopper to hit against. ii, Two small wire stops acting upon e. a, Key. b, Lifter centred in the key and the hopper lever. dd, Hopper. like the buff-stop is accomplished, but with more delicacy kk, Hopper and sustaining spring. 1, Check. e, Hammer sustaining lever. f. Stop for e. g, Hopper button. c. Hopper lever. and vibration in its effects. pedal is jeu céleste, and to us it is more agreeable, and is The foreign name for this ", Damper. o, Hammer. p, Hammer rail. mm, Balance weights of lead. certainly less injurious to the action of the instrument than the more frequent piano pedal.

We will here give, in alphabetical order, a few diagrams of grand actions. Their merits we must leave to those who have occasion for them, reserving only the right to make a few brief remarks that may be necessary for the purpose of this article. They are the works of living manufacturers. The Common Grand Piano-forte Action.

Fig. 5.

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Fig. 8. Mr. Errard's Patent Grand Action; the Invention of his Uncle, Mr. Sebastian Errard.

Fig. 8.

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a, Key. b, Hopper and spring. off the hopper. f. Hopper lever. g, The attached to the butt of the hammer. c, Hammer. d, Check. e, Button to set h, Sustaining spring linked to the end of the tie, and fixed in the front end of the hopper lever, the rising of which puts the sustaining spring in action. This spring gives the piano blow and assists in the forte and repetition. ii, Damper and fixings. k, Hammer ruler and back touch. to set up the hoppers. 1, Wood spring

Fig. 10. Mr. Zeiter's new Grand Action.

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The upright piano-forte was, doubtless, taken from the upright harpsichord, and we have always understood that it was the invention of an Englishman of the name of Hancock, a musical instrument maker resident in some part of Westminster. He was a man of much ingenuity, and produced several varieties in keyed instruments; amongst which we find the organised piano-forte, the portable grand piano-forte, and an instrument, also a pianoforte, in the shape of a spinnet. day, was a successful and desirable instrument, but has The portable grand, in its long since been superseded by instruments of the kind grands. The next novelty was the invention of John Isaac called kit grands, boudoir grands, pocket grands, and semi Hawkins, who constructed an upright instrument with a

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