|

effort at reconciliation, but the cardinal had not arrived. at his destination when a decree of Napoleon, dated 2nd April, 1808, united the provinces of Ancona, Macerata, Fermo, and Urbino to the kingdom of Italy, stating in the preamble: 1, that the temporal sovereign of Rome had constantly refused to declare war against the English, and to enter into a confederation with the kings of Italy and of Naples for the defence of the peninsula; 2, that the interests of those two kingdoms required an unint rrupted communication between them; 3, that the donation made by Charlemagne to the see of Rome was intended for the advantage of the church, and not for that of heretics and enemies to that church; 4, lastly, that the ambassador of Rome at Paris had demanded his passport on the 30th March last, and the diplomatic relations between the two states were at an end.

Fresh remonstrances on the part of Pius were answered by threats of further hostile measures on the part of Napoleon, unless the pope entered into an offensive and defensive league with the kingdoms of Naples and Italy, and by a declaration that the pope would lose his temporal sovereignty and remain bishop of Rome as his predecessors were during the first eight centuries and under the reign of Charlemagne. (Note de M. de Champagny, Ministre des affaires étrangères, à S. Eminence le Cardinal Caprara, 18th April, 1808.) The war which began soon after in Spain prevented Napoleon from occupying himself with the affairs of Rome, which remained in a state of uncertainty amidst frequent clashing between the French military authorities and the papal civil officers. The papal treasury, impoverished as it was by the loss of its finest provinces, was obliged to pay the French troops which garrisoned the towns that still nominally belonged to the pope. All the disaffected and the turbulent, trusting to French protection, openly insulted the papal government. The pope remained confined to his palace on the Quirinal with his Swiss guard at the gates, not wishing to expose himself to violence by venturing out.

won by his unassuming yet dignified behaviour, and his unaffected piety. In May, 1805, he returned to Rome; and his troubles began soon after. In October, 1805, a body of French troops suddenly took military possession of Ancona. Pius remonstrated by a letter which he wrote to Napoleon, who was at that time at the head of his army in Austria. It was only after the peace of Presburg that he received an answer, in which Napoleon said, that he considered himself as the protector of the church against heretics and schismatics, like his predecessors from the time of Charlemagne, and that as such he had occupied Ancona to prevent it falling into the hands of the English or the Russians. Soon after, Napoleon officially required the pope, through his ambassador at Rome, to expel from his dominions all English, Russian, Swedish, and Sardinian subjects, and to forbid his ports to the vessels of those powers who were then at war with France. Pius replied at length in a letter to Napoleon, representing to him that his request was destructive of the independence of the Papal State and of its political neutrality, which were necessary to the welfare of the church and for the security of the numerous members of it who were living in those very countries with which the emperor was then at war. He said that the head of the church ought to be a minister of peace, and not to take part in a war which has not religion for its object; that if some of his predecessors had not always abided by this rule, he at least should not follow their example. Napoleon however insisted, and an angry correspondence was carried on between the two courts for about two years on this subject of contention, the neutrality of the Papal State being all the while merely nominal, as the French troops marching from and to Naples crossed and recrossed it at their pleasure, and the French also kept a garrison at Ancona, the only papal port of any importance. By degrees they extended their posts all along the Adriatic coast, and garrisoned the various ports. Some time after, a body of French troops, coming from Naples, passed through Rome, ostensibly to proceed to Leghorn, but they suddenly turned out of the main road and surprised in the night the town of Civitavecchia, of which they took military possession. In all these places they confiscated whatever English property they could find. The papal troops at Ancona, Civitavecchia, and other places, were ordered to place themselves under the direction of the French commanders, and some officers who refused to do so were arrested and kept in confinement. Napoleon in the mean time found fresh grounds of quarrel with the pope. He wished to declare the marriage of his brother Jerome with an American Protestant lady null; but Pius refused, saying that although the church abhorred marriages between Catholics and heretics, yet if they were contracted in Prorestant countries, according to the laws of those countries, they were binding and indissoluble. (Letter of Pius VII.' on this important subject, in Artaud, Vie du Pape Pie VII., Paris, 1826.) He next accused the pope of dilatoriness in giving the canonical institution to the bishops elected to vacant sees in the kingdom of Italy. The delay was defended by the court of Rome on the ground of the non-execution or misinterpretation by the French of several articles of the concordat, especially as to the Venetian territories, which had been an-pendix to the 1st part, No. v. nexed to the Italian kingdom after the concordat was made, The French commander, Miollis, being afraid of an inand which the pope did not therefore include in its provi-surrection of the people of Rome, who had shown unequi sions. Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, wrote a very able and conciliatory letter to the pope, in order to bring about an arrangement, and the pope was induced to invite the bishops elect to Rome, in order to receive the canonical institution, when a threatening letter came, written by Napoleon from Dresden, after the peace of Tilsit, in the summer of 1807, in which he said that the pope must not take him for a Louis le Débonnaire; that his anathemas would never make his soldiers drop their muskets; that he, Napoleon, if provoked too far, could separate the greater part of Europe from the Roman church, and establish a more rational form of worship than that of which the pope was the head, that such a thing was easy in the actual state of people's minds,' &c.; and he forbade Eugene to corred any longer with the pope, or send the bishops elect to Rom, for, he said, 'they would only imbibe there principles of sedition against their sovereign.' Matters were now brought to an open rupture. A French force under General Miollis entered Rome in February, 1808, took possession of the castile and the gates, leaving however the civil authorities undisturbed. The pope was prevailed upon to send Cardinal De Bayanne as his legate to Paris, to make a last

spon

On the 17th May, 1809, Napoleon, who was then making war against Austria, issued a decree from Vienna, in which he united the remainder of the Roman states to the French empire, leaving to the pope his palaces and an income of two millions of francs (80,0007. sterling). The preamble of the decree was, as usual, grounded on the alleged donation of Charlemagne, 'his il ustrious predecessor,' to the see of Rome, which donation, it was stated, was on the condition of feudal allegiance, Rome being still considered as belonging to the empire. But the union of the two powers, temporal and spiritual, having proved a source of perpetual discord, and of never-ending pretensions and assumptions, he, Napoleon, thought proper, for the security of his empire and of his people, to resume the grant of Charlemagne.'

On the 10th June, 1809, the pope issued a bull of excommunication against all the perpetrators and abettors of the invasion of Rome and of the territories of the Holy See. The bull was affixed to the gates of the principal churches of Rome and in other public places. The text of the bull is given by Cardinal Pacca, in his 'Memorie Storiche,' Ap

vocal signs of attachment to their sovereign, thought it expedient to remove Pius from the capital. It is stated, in the Memoirs of Las Cases,' that he did this without orders from Napoleon, who was still with his army in Austria, but that he concerted his measures with Murat, king of Naples, who sent him a reinforcement of Neapolitan troops for the purpose. General Radet of the gendarmerie was entrusted with the abduction of the pope, who had shut himself up in his palace on the Quirinal. Between two and three o'clock in the morning of the 6th of July, some men scaled the walls in the greatest silence, broke open several doors, and having opened the great gates, let in their com rades from without. The Swiss guards made no resistance, having orders to that effect from the pope. General Radet penetrated to the apartment in which Pius was, and found him in full dress, surrounded by several attendants. The general told him respectfully that he had orders to remove him from Rome unless he consented to sign an abdication of his temporal sovereignty, and on the pope saying that he could not do that, Radet told him that he must depart immediately. I then yield to force,' replied Pius; and, taking his breviary under his arm, he accompanied the

general to the gate, where his carriage was ready, and drove | council revoked the cession. [PASCHAL II.] Upon this Pius off under an escort. He was taken first to Grenoble in wrote to Napoleon, on the 24th of March, retracting his Dauphiné, from whence he was removed, by order of Na- concessions, but proposing a new basis for a concordat; Napoleon, to Savona in the Riviera of Genoa, where he re-poleon however took no notice of the retractation, except by mained till June, 1812, when he was removed to Fontaine-exiling some of the cardinals who, he thought, had influenced bleau, by an order from Napoleon. During his stay at it. Napoleon soon after set off for his army in Germany, Savona, Napoleon convoked a council at Paris of the bishops and the affair with the pope remained in suspense. of his empire, but he found that assembly less docile than he It was only after the defeat of the French armies and expected, and he dissolved it without any conclusion their expulsion from Germany that Napoleon proposed being come to. The great question was how to fill up the to restore to the pope the Papal States south of the Apenvacant sees, when the pope refused the canonical institution. nines, if the pope would agree to a concordat. Pius anThe pope at the same time would not recognise Napoleon's swered, that he would not enter into any negotiations until he divorce from his first wife Josephine. In short, Napoleon was restored to Rome. On the 22nd of January, 1814, an found that unarmed priests were more difficult te conquer order came for the pope to leave Fontainebleau the following than the armies of one half of Europe. (Thibaudeau, Le day. None of the cardinals were allowed to accompany Consulat et l'Empire, ch. 77; Botta, Stòria d'Italia, b. 25.) him. He set off accompanied by an escort, and was taken The plan of Napoleon was to have the pope settled at to Italy.. On arriving at the bridge on the river Nura, in Avignon, or some other town of his empire, as his subject the state of Parma, he met the advanced posts of the Neaand his pensionary, and to have himself the nomination not politan troops under Murat, who was then making common only of the bishops, but of the cardinals also, by which cause with the allied powers against Napoleon. Murat had means he would have added to his already overbearing tem- taken military occupation of the Roman state, but he offered poral power the incalculable support of a spiritual authority to give up Rome and the Campagna. Pius however prewhich extends over a great part of the world. The resist- ferred stopping at Cesena, his native town, until the political ance of Pius disappointed his views. 'Strange, but true,' horizon was cleared up. After the abdication of Napoleon exclaims Botta, in this instance the independence of the and the peace of Paris, Pius made his entrance into Rome, church was the only remaining prop of general liberty, and on the 24th of May, 1814, in the midst of rejoicings and if the ecclesiastical authority had given way, no check was acclamations. His faithful Consalvi soon after resumed his left against a universal and overwhelming tyranny.' office of secretary of state. By the articles of the congress Napoleon at last imagined that by removing Pius to of Vienna the whole of the Papal States were restored, Fontainebleau, he might succeed in overcoming his firm- including the legations, which were not however evacuated ness. Pius was again obliged to make a long journey by the Austrian troops until after the fall of Murat, in 1815. with the greatest secresy. He arrived at Fontainebleau in The remaining years of the life of Pius were spent in June, 1812, and was lodged in the imperial palace, and comparative tranquillity, though not in idleness. He treated with marked respect. Napoleon had set out on his applied himself to adapt, as far as it was practicable, Russian expedition. After his return from that disastrous the civil institutions of his dominions to the great changes campaign, in December, 1812, he went to see the pope, em- which had taken place in the social state. By a motu braced him, and treated him with studied attention; The also proprio' of the year 1816, he confirmed the suppression allowed several cardinals who were at Paris to repair to Fon- of all feudal imposts, privileges, monopolies, and juristainebleau, and at last, chiefly through their persuasions, he dictions; he abolished every kind of torture, including that prevailed upon the pope to sign a new concordat, the 25th of called the corda,' or 'estrapade,' which was formerly a January, 1813. It is not true, as some have stated, that frequent mode of punishment at Rome; he diminished Napoleon, in one of his conferences with Pius, had lifted the land-tax; retained the register of hypothèques, or 'morthis hand against him and struck him. Pacca (Memorie gages,' instituted by the French; laid down the basis of a Storiche,' part iii., ch. 1) denies this on the authority of Pius new code of public administration, and in November of the himself, but thinks it very probable that Napoleon spoke to following year he published a new code of civil procedure, his prisoner in an authoritative and threatening tone. in which he regulated the costs of judicial proceedings. He maintained the commercial courts established by the French, as well as the new system of police, enforced by a regular corps of carabineers, instead of the old ‘sbirri,' who were ineffective and corrupt. (Tournon, Etudes Statistiques sur Rome, b. iv., ch. 6.) Unfortunately however the old system of secret proceedings in criminal matters was restored, as well as that of the ecclesiastical courts, which have jurisdiction also over laymen. Pius however made some important alterations in the form of proceeding of the Inquisition, abolishing torture as well as the punishment of death for offences concerning religion. He did probably all that he could do as a pope, and certainly more than any pope had done before him. Cardinal Consalvi took vigorous measures to extirpate the banditti of the Campagna; and in July, 1819, he ordered the town of Sonnino, a notorious nest of incorrigible robbers, to be razed to the ground. With regard to spiritual matters, Pius concluded a new concordat with France, Naples, Bavaria, and other states. He condemned by a bull the political society of Carbonari, as well as other secret societies.

The principal articles of the concordat were, 1, that the pope should give to the bishops who might from time to time be elected to the vacant sees, in six months at latest after their nomination by the emperor, the canonical institution. If this were not granted after six months, the metropolitan of the province (and on his default, the senior bishop) should give the institution to the bishops eleet, so that no see should remain vacant longer than a twelvemonth; 2, the pope should have the nomination to ten sees of France and Italy, besides that of the six bishops, called suburbicarii, in the neighbourhood of Rome; 3.the other bishops of the Papal State, who had been banished their dioceses for noncompliance with the orders of Napoleon, should not be reinstated, but appointed bishops in partibus;' 4, the pope was to fix his residence either in France or in the kingdom of Italy, and to hold his court and appoint his officers, ministers, and legates as before, in his quality of head of the church; 5, the emperor Napoleon granted full amnesty to the cardinals and other prelates or clergymen who had incurred his displeasure during the late controversy. (Pacca, Memorie Storiche, part ii., ch. 6.)

Napoleon hastened to publish the articles of the concordat, and to give them the force of laws of the empire; after which he granted free access to the pope to all cardinals and others who chose to repair to Fontainebleau. Pius, who had scruples concerning some of the articles which he had signed, laid them before the cardinals, and asked their opinion. Several of the cardinals, especially the Italian ones, such as Consalvi, Pacca, Litta, and Di Pietro, stated that some of the articles were contrary to the canon law and the legitimate jurisdiction of the Roman see, and pregnant with the most serious evils to the church, and they urged the necessity of a prompt retractation. They quoted the wellknown example of Paschal II., who, in similar circumstances having eeded to the emperor Henry V. the right of investiture, hastened to submit his conduct to the judgment of a council assembled in the Lateran, and the

In the month of July, 1823, Pius, who was then eightyone years of age, had a fall in his apartments, and broke his thigh. This accident brought on inflammation, and after a few weeks he died, on the 20th of August, universally regretted. He was succeeded by Leo XII. Thorwaldsen was commissioned to make his monument, which has been placed in St. Peter's.

Pius VII. stands prominent among the long series of popes for his exemplary conduct under adversity, his truly Christian virtues, and his general benevolence and charity. Free from nepotism, modest, unassuming, and personally disinterested, he was a staunch though temperate defender of the rights of his see, and his meek bearing and unblemished character engaged on his side the sympathies of the whole Christian world, without distinction of community or seet, during his long struggle with his gigantic and ungenerous adversary.

When that operation was finished, the jury returned their verdict, that the gold coins were in weight and in alloy sufficient according to the terms of the indenture; as were also the silver coins in alloy; but the quantity of them was too small to allow their agreement in weight to be

ascertained.'

The trial in 1799 was an assay of the coins minted during a period of somewhat more than four years. The Gentleman's Magazine' for 1815 (vol. lxxxv., pt. ii., p. 207) con tains an account of the trial of the pix upon the monies coined from the 19th February, 1806, to the 28th September, 1814, of gold to the amount of 47,613lbs. weight, and of 209lbs. of silver, which had been coined into 2,224,7177. 88. 6d. of gold, and 6477. 18s. of silver; the gold consisting of half-guineas and seven-shilling pieces, and the silver of fourpences, threepences, twopences, and pence. The total contained in the pix was

Gold
Silver

£.
s. d.
1719 18

0

012 0

1720 10 0

(Ruding's Annals of the Coinage of Britain, new edit., 1840, vol. i., p. 69-76.)

each, and compared with the pound weight of gold eoin, | island. The new governor of Panama, Pedro de los Rios, and the aforesaid several pieces of silver coin, by the usual not only would not permit any new levies to be made, but methods of assay. sent a vessel to bring away Pizarro and his band. Pizarro refused to obey this order, and drawing a line on the sand with his sword, desired those who chose to remain with him to cross to his side: thirteen alone of his hardy veterans had sufficient courage to do so, with whom, and the crew of a vessel subsequently sent to his aid from Panama, he prosecuted his examination of the coast of Peru. He landed at Tumbez, where there was a palace of the Incas, and he ranged for some time peaceably along the coast. The abundance of gold and silver used by the inhabitants not only for ornament, but for utensils of common use, filled Pizarro and his companions with wonder. He returned to Panama in 1528, having encountered, during his absence of three years, greater hardships and dangers than any other adventurer of the age. The governor was not moved by his accounts of the opulence of the newly discovered country, and it was settled by the associates that Pizarro should proceed to Europe to obtain the sanction of the emperor. By his address he succeeded in gaining the attention of Charles V. and his ministers, and without bestowing a thought upon his associates, he obtained for himself the appointments of governor and captain-general, and adelantado over all the country to be discovered, with supreme authority, both civil and military, stipulating in return to equip a certain force, and remit one-fifth of all the treasure that he should acquire to the crown. Pizarro was so poor, that without the assistance of Cortez he could not have performed his part of the agreement, and at length he sailed from Spain with only half the number of men required, among whom were his three brothers. He returned to Panama in 1530, and having with difficulty effected a reconciliation with Almagro, who was indignant at his perfidy, he sailed in February, 1531, with 186 soldiers, of whom 36 were horsemen, leaving Almagro as before to follow with reinforcements. Pizarro first surprised the principal town of the province of Coaque, where he obtained a great booty, which enabled him to despatch two of his ships to Panama and Nicaragua with remittances, which soon procured him recruits. Proceeding southward he attacked, and, after a fierce resistance, took the island of Puno, in the bay of Guayaquil. At Tumbez he was forced to remain three months, in consequence of a violent distemper among his men. At the mouth of the river Piura he founded the first Spanish settlement, and called it S. Michael. Fortunately for Pizarro a civil war was at this period raging in Peru between the brothers Atahualpa and Huascar [PERU], and each party requested his assistance against the other: Pizarro seized the opportunity, and marched up the country to Caxamarca. Having posted his little band in a strong position, he visited Atahualpa, who was encamped near that city, where the sight of a profusion of the precious metals that he found inflamed his cupidity to such a degree, that he resolved upon a plan as daring as it was treacherous and dishonourable. At a given signal, when Atahualpa was returning Pizarro's visit, the Spaniards opened a fire upon the followers of the Inca, the suddenness and surprise of which completely supified them, and as no resistance was attempted, Pizarro carried off the unfortunate Atahualpa a prisoner to his quarters, where he was confined in a room 22 feet long by 16 feet broad. Having soon discovered the insatiable avarice of the Spaniards, Atahualpa offered as his ransom to fill this room with gold as high as he could reach. The offer was eagerly accepted by Pizarro, without the smallest intention of performing his part of the agreement. Before the whole was collected, the soldiers became so much excited at the sight of such vast treasure, that it was found impossible to restrain their impatience, and after setting aside the fifth part for the crown, and a share for Almagro's party, 1,528,500 pesos, or ounces, were divided. Pizarro's share was 2350 marks of silver, and 57,220 ounces of gold. Having obtained all that he could from Atahualpa, his feelings were soon excited to hatred and a desire of revenge, on perceiving that he was an object of scorn and contempt to Atahualpa, who had discovered that Pizarro was ignorant of the arts that he most admired in the Spaniards, reading and writing. Pizarro accordingly caused him to be put to death in 1533. The government of Peru was now so far overthrown, and the country so torn by mtestine convulsions, that no effectual opposition was offered to Pizarro, who marched upon and captured Cuzco, the

PIZARRO, FRANCISCO, the discoverer and conqueror of Peru, was the natural son of Gonzalo Pizarro, an officer who served with considerable distinction under the Great Captain in the Italian wars. Gomara relates that Francisco was born upon the steps of a church, and in his earliest days was suckled by a sow. Garcilaso denies this, but all agree that he was born at Truxillo, about the year 1480. His education was so completely neglected, that he never learned to read or write, and he was employed by his father in tending pigs; but getting tired of this occupation, he ran away to Seville with some of his companions, became a soldier, and shortly afterwards embarked to try his fortune in the New World. The first occasion on which he gained distinction was during the expedition of Ojeda to Tierra Firma, in 1510, by whom he was left as his lieutenant in the new conquest. He gained the confidence of Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, whom he accompanied in his expedition to Mexico. On these occasions Pizarro showed himself superior to all his companions in courage, enterprise, and powers of endurance, and he became the favourite leader of the soldiers, who never felt so much confidence as when they were under his orders. Pizarro had seen fourteen years of arduous service, and was still one of the least wealthy of the Spanish colonists, when he joined Hernando de Luque and Diego de Almagro in the project of extending the Spanish conquests along the southern coast. Pizarro and Almagro could only give their personal labour and experience, while the wealthy priest, their associate, advanced 20,000 ounces of gold towards defraying the expenses of the expedition. Pizarro sailed from Panama in November, 1524, with one small ship, eighty men, and four horses, to attempt the conquest of a great country; leaving Almagro to follow with reinforcements as soon as he could raise them. Pizarro shaped his course to the south-east, but having in ignorance selected that period of the year in which the winds and currents were opposed to him, his progress was very slow. He touched at several places in Tierra Firma, where he found a most uninviting country, the low grounds of which were covered with swamps, the higher with impenetrable forests, having few inhabitants, and those fierce and hostile. Fatigue, famine, and disease having wasted his little band, Pizarro was compelled to await the arrival of Almagro at Chicama, who at length joined him, having undergone equal hardships. With unbroken spirit they decided on their course of action. Pizarro remained at Chicama while Almagro returned for fresh forces, which Luque with difficulty persuaded Pedrarias, the governor of Panama, to furnish. With these reinforcements, in the year 1526, Pizarro advanced from Chicama to the south, and explored the coast of Quito. He entered the bay of Saint Matthew, where he found a fertile country, the inhabitants of which were clothed in garments of woollen and cotton, with ornaments of gold and silver. This country being too populous to attack, Almagro returned to Panama for further aid, and Pizarro retired to a neighbouring

plunder of which city exceeded in value the ransom of Atahualpa.

PLACITUS PAPYRIENSIS, SEXTUS, sometimes called by mistake Sextus Platonicus, or Sextus Empiricus, In 1534, Ferdinand Pizarro landed in Spain with the royal the author of a work entitled De Medicamentis ex Anishare of Atahualpa's ransom, when Francisco's authority was malibus.' His age is unknown, but he is supposed to have confirmed with new powers and privileges, and Almagro was lived about the fourth century A.D.; by some persons he is appointed adelantado of a country to be conquered to the called Papiensis; but all that is known of him is that he southward of Pizarro's government. The reconciliation be- was a physician, as appears from various parts of his work tween Almagro and Pizarro had never been sincere; their (cap. 27, &c.). It is written in Latin, and consists of thirtyevil passions were however for the present suppressed, and four short chapters, each of which treats of some anima Almagro marched to the conquest of Chile, while Pizarro that was considered to have certain medical properties in busied himself with the internal government of Peru, in the different parts of its body. It is of little or no value, as may arrangement and administration of which he showed con- easily be seen from the following specimens:-against a siderable judgment. In January, 1535, he founded the city quartan fever he directs the heart of a hare to be hung of Lima, to which he gave the name of Ciudad de los Reyes. | round the arm or neck (cap. 2); in order to be delivered for In 1536 the Peruvians rose and endeavoured to throw off ever from pain in the bowels, he recommends a very young the Spanish yoke: they cut off several detachments, and puppy to be dressed and eaten (cap. 11); for persons affected completely blockaded Pizarro in Lima, and his brother in with phthisis or a bad cough, he orders the saliva of a horse Cuzco. This brought Almagro from Chile, who, having de- to be taken, mixed with wine or water: This,' says he, 'I feated the Peruvians, attacked Cuzco, took prisoners Pizar- | have myself tried, but it is a matter of notoriety (expertisro's brothers, and subsequently Alvarado also; but certain simum est) that the horse will die' (cap. 14). compunctions preventing him from attacking Pizarro immediately after, the viceroy was enabled to collect his forces and attack Almagro, whom he took prisoner, and soon afterwards tried and executed in 1538. Pizarro's partiality in entirely leaving out the followers of Almagro in the subsequent allotment of lands, completely alienated them, and they attached themselves to the young Almagro, who soon became the rallying point for all who were disaffected towards Pizarro. A conspiracy was formed against him, and on Sunday, June 26, 1541, the conspirators, sixteen in number, headed by Herrada, entered the governor's palace at mid-day, the hour of repose in hot climates, and succeeded in reaching the staircase before an alarm was given. Pizarro, with his half-brother Alcantara, and a knot of faithful friends, defended themselves to the last. They fell, one after another, till Pizarro remained alone. At length, exhausted by the long conflict, and unable to parry the numerous blows aimed at him, he received a thrust in the throat, and expired in the 62nd year of his age, full of strength and vigour.

The work has been frequently published both separately and in different collections. It was first published in 1538, Norimb., 4to. ; in the same year, Basil., 8vo. It is inserted in the first volume of the Medica Artis Principes,' published by H. Stephens, Paris, 1567, in the collection edited by And. Rivinus, Lips., 1654, 8vo.; in the thirteenth volume of the old edition of Fabricius, Biblioth. Græca;' and in Ackermann's collection entitled Parabilium Medica. mentorum Scriptores Antiqui,' Norimb. et Altorf., 1788, Svo. There are two German translations, one by Henisch, Basel, 1582, 8vo.; and the other by May or Mayer, Magdeb., 1612, fol. It should be mentioned that Constantinus Afer, in his work entitled De Remediis ex Animalibus,' has borrowed very freely from this treatise, and indeed copied great part of it almost word for word.

PLACOBRANCHIATA, or PLACOBRA'NCHIDE, M. Rang's name for a family of mollusks, forming his fifth family of Gasteropoda (Cuv.), but placed by Cuvier among his Nudibranchiata. [NUDIBRANCHIATA, vol. xvi., p. 362.]

M. Rang (Manuel) observes that M. de Férussac had shown to him some mollusks which had been sent to M. de Férussac from the Mediterranean, and in which M. Rang at once recognised the genus Acteon of Oken, or Elysia of Risso. M. de Férussac pointed out to M. Rang that the branchia covered the back and upper surface of the lobes, under the form of a vascular net, and therefore M. Rangi opinion that it should be added to his family of Placo branchide, which had previously contained but one genus, viz. Placobranchus.

Robertson says of Pizarro,' With a temper of mind no less daring than the constitution of his body was robust, he was foremost in every danger, patient under the greatest hardships, and uusubdued by any fatigue. Though so illiterate that he could not even read, he was soon found to be formed for command. Every operation committed to his conduct proved successful, as, by a happy but rare conjunc-of tion, he united perseverance with ardour, and was as cautious in executing as he was bold in forming his plans. To the soldierly qualities of intrepid valour, indefatigable activity, insurmountable constar y in enduring the hardships of military service in the New World, he added the address, the craft, the dissimulation of the politician, with the art of concealing his own purposes, and sagacity to penetrate into those of other men.'

(Vidas de Españoles Célebres, par Don M. F. Quintana; Robertson's Hist. of America.)

PIZZIGHETTO'NE. [CREMONA]
PIZZO. [CALABRIA.]
PLACE, LA. [LAPLACE.]

PLACENTA (Conchology), Schumacher's name for the
Placuna of authors.

PLACENTA, in Botany, is that part of a seed-vessel on which the ovules or seeds are placed. It is always of a soft cellular texture, and is commonly found occupying the margin of a carpel. It is however as often confined to a single point, as in nettles, and many other plants. Morphologists usually regard it as a mere cellular expansion of the margin or surface of a carpel; but there seems to be no means of reconciling with this view some kinds of parietal placenta and all kinds of the free central. This had led to the opinion that some placenta are merely an expansion of the axis of. growth, round and over which the carpellary leaves are folded; and there can be no doubt that this is true of Primulaceæ, Lamiaceæ, Boraginaceae, and Graminaceae at least. The subject has however as yet been very imperfectly investigated, and will probably be found connected with systematical points of great value. (Lindley's Introduction to Botany, 3rd ed., p. 208.)

PLACENTA. [FŒTUS.]
PLACENTIA. [PIACENZA.]

PLACOBRANCHUS. [NUDIBRANCHIATA, vol. xvi., p. 362; PLACOBRANCHIATA.]

PLACU'NA. [OYSTERS; PECTINIDE, vol. xvii., p. 363.] PLACUNANO'MIA. [PECTINIDE, vol. xvii., p. 364.] PLAGAL, a term in old ecclesiastical music, relating solely to the Canto-Fermo, or PLAIN-SONG, or PlainChant, and signifying collateral. The Plain-Song was seldom allowed to exceed the compass of an octave, and never went beyond nine notes. When the octave was so divided that the fifth was above the fourth, the mode or key was said to be Plagal. [AUTHENTIC.]

PLAGIO'STOMA (Conchology). [SPONDYLIDE.] M. Duméril uses the term Plagiostomes to denote the Sélaciens, Cuvier's first family, including the Sharks (Squalus, Linn.) and the Rays (Raia, Linn.), of the Chondroptérygiens d branchies fixes.

PLAGUE. [PESTILENCE.]

PLAGU'SIA. [GRAPSUS, vol. xi., p. 362.] Plagusia is also Browne's name for a fish: The little brown Sole with a pointed tail.' (Jamaica, p. 445.)

PLAID, the antient garb of the Scots Highlanders; still worn by the 42nd, 72nd, 78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd Highland regiments.

The belted plaid consists of twelve yards of tartan, which are plaited, and bound round the waist by a leathern belt, the upper part being attached to the left shoulder.

In the regulations relative to the clothing and half mounting of the British infantry, it is directed that in a Highland corp serving in Europe, in North America, or at the Cape of Good Hope, each serjeant, corporal, drummer, and private man shall have six yards of plaid once in two years, and a purse every seven years, (James's Military

PLACE'NTULA, Schumacher's name for a genus of Dictionary, 8vo., Lond., 1810.) microscopic Foraminifera.

In the glossary to Jamieson's Popular Ballads,' 8vo.