to us.

The map extends to the right, or east, as far as the mouths of the Ganges. Roads are traced through India to several emporia, or places of trade, on the coast. To the west the map ends abruptly on the borders of Spain, including farther north only the eastern part of Britain. It is evident, as Mannert maintains, that one leaf is wanting, and it | has perhaps been lost.

valuable antient works on geography which have come down | quired; the onus and beneficium going together. (Pettman v. Bridger, 1 Phill., 325; Rogers v. Brooks, 1 T. R., 431; Griffith v. Matthews, T. R., 297.) The above observations apply to pews in the body of the church. With respect to seats in the chancel, it is stated in the Report of the Ecclesiastical Commission, page 49, the law has not been settled with equal certainty, and great inconvenience has been experienced from the doubts continued to be entertained. Some are of opinion that the churchwardens have no authority over pews in the chancel. Again, it has been said that the rector, whether spiritual or lay, has in the first instance at least a right to dispose of the seats; claims have also been set up on behalf of the vicar; the extent of the ordinary's authority to remedy any undue arrangement with regard to such pews has been questioned.' (Gibson, 226; 3 Inst., 202; 1 Brown and Goul., Rep., 4; Griffith v. Matthews, 5 T. R., 298; Clifford v. Wicks, 1 B. and Ad., 498; Morgan v. Curtis, 3 Man. and Ryl., 389; Rich v. Bushnell, 4 Hagg., Ecc. Rep., 164.)

PEW. A pew is defined by Dr. Johnson to be ‘a seat enclosed in a church.' Sittings enclosed in a church would perhaps be a more correct description, inasmuch as a pew contains several seats; and it not unfrequently happens that different families have the right of sitting in the same pew. The word pew is scarcely to be met with in authors upon ecclesiastical law, who almost invariably use the expression 'church seat.'

There were no pews in churches until about the period of the Reformation, prior to which the seats were moveable, such as chairs and benches, as we see at this time in the Roman Catholic churches on the Continent. Before that time no cases are to be found of claims to pews, although in the common-law books two or three claims are mentioned to seats in a church or particular parts of a seat, which were probably moveable benches or forms.

By the general law and of common right,' Sir John Nicholl observed (in Fuller v. Lane, 2 Add. Eccl. Rep., 425), all the pews in a parish church are the common property of the parish; they are for the use in common of the parishioners, who are all entitled to be seated orderly and conveniently so as best to provide for the accommodation of all.' The right of appointing what persons shall sit in each seat belongs to the ordinary (3 Inst., 202); and the churchwardens, who are the officers of the ordinary, are to place the parishioners according to their rank and station; but they are subject to his control if any complaint should be made against them.' (Pettman v. Bridger, 1 Phill, 323.) A parishioner has a right to a seat in the church without any payment for it, and if he has cause of complaint in this respect against the churchwardens, he may cite them in the ecclesiastical court to show cause why they have not seated him properly; and if there be persons occupying pews who are not inhabitants in the parish, they ought to be displaced in order to make room for him. This general right how ever of the churchwardens as the officers of the ordinary is subject to certain exceptions, for private rights to pews may be sustained upon the ground of a faculty, or of prescription, which presumes a faculty.

The right by faculty arises where the ordinary or his predecessor has granted a licence or faculty appropriating certain pews to individuals. Faculties have varied in their form; sometimes the appropriation has been to a person and his family so long as they continue inhabitants of a certain house in the parish' the more modern form is to a man and his family so long as they continue inhabitants of the parish' generally. The first of these is perhaps the least exceptionable form. (Sir J. Nicholl, 2 Add., 426.)

With regard to aisles or isles (wings) in a church, different considerations apply. The whole isle or particular seats in it may be claimed as appurtenant to an antient mansion or dwelling-house, for the use of the occupiers of which the aisle is presumed to have been originally built. In order to complete this exclusive right it is necessary that it should have existed immemorially, and that the owners of the mansion in respect of which it is claimed should from time to time have borne the expense of repairing that which they claim as having been set up by their predecessors. (3 Inst., 202.)

The purchasing or renting of pews in churches is contrary to the general ecclesiastical law. (Walter v. Gunner and Drury, 1 Hagg., Consist. Rep., 314, and the cases referred to in the note, p. 318; Hawkins and Coleman v. Compeigne, 3 Phill., 16.)

Pew-rents, under the church-building acts, are exceptions to the general law; and where rents are taken in populous places, they are sanctioned by special acts of parliament. Pew-rents in private unconsecrated chapels do not fall under the same principle, such chapels being private property.

PEWTER, a compound metal extensively employed, especially in the manufacture of those drinking-vessels called pewter pots. The finest pewter is said to consist of 12 parts of tin, 1 part of antimony, and a very little copper; while common pewter consists of about 80 parts of tin and 20 of lead. Pewter was formerly much more employed than at present, especially in the manufacture of plates and dishes.

PEYER, JEAN CONRAD, was born at Schaffhausen in 1653. He studied medicine at Basle and at Paris, and having taken the degree of doctor of medicine at the former university, returned to practise at his native town. He held there successively the professorships of eloquence, of logic, and of the physical sciences; but his present reputation is derived chiefly from his having first clearly described the little bodies which are scattered in patches along the end of the small intestines, and which are therefore commonly called Peyer's glands. He died in 1712. Besides his work on the intestinal glands, Peyer wrote numerous detached papers on morbid anatomy, of which he was one of the most assiduous of the early cultivators, and a few on practical medicine and comparative anatomy.

Where a faculty exists, the ordinary has parted with his right, and therefore cannot again interfere: it has however been laid down in the ecclesiastical court that where a party claiming by faculty ceases to be a parishioner, his right is determined. Sir John Nicholl states, Whenever the occupant of a pew in the body of the church ceases to be a parishioner, his right to the pew, howsoever founded, and PEʼZE'NAS, a town in France, in the department of how valid soever during his continuance in the parish, Hérault, on a cross-road from Aix to Perpignan, 39 miles at once ceases.' (Fuller v. Lane, 2 Add., 427.) The same from Montpellier, the capital of the department. Pézenas doctrine has been sanctioned by the Court of King's Bench. was known to the Romans by the name Piscenae; and is (Byerley v. Windus, 5 Barn. and Cress., 18.) But in a case mentioned by Pliny (Hist. Nat., lib. viii., c. 48) as producin the Court of Exchequer, chief-baron Macdonald was of a ing in the neighbourhood wool which resembled hair rather different opinion. The question there was whether there than wool. In the middle ages it was the capital of a county. could be in law a prescription for a person living out of the The town is pleasantly situated on the Peyne, a little stream parish to have a pew in the body of the church, and it was which falls into the Hérault on its right bank, just below held that there might (Lousley v. Hayward, 1 Y. and I., Pézénas. It has some tolerably good houses, and a hand 583). As prescription presumes a faculty, these opinions some theatre. The population in 1831 was 7481 for the seem to be at variance. Where a claim to a pew is made town, or 7847 for the whole commune. The townsmen by prescription as annexed to a house, the question must be manufacture blankets and coverlets, serges and other tried at law. The courts of common law in such cases exer- woollen stuffs, linens, cotton-yarn, thrown silk, hats, brandy, cise jurisdiction on the ground of the pew being an ease- distilled waters, syrup of sugar and grapes, and chemical ment to the house (Mainwaring v. Giles, 5 Barn. and Ald., products. There are some dye-houses and tan-yards. Con361); and if the ecclesiastical courts proceed to try such siderable trade is carried on in wines (of which the neighprescription, a prohibition would issue. In order to sup-bourhood produces some of excellent quality), wheat, oats, port a claim by prescription, occupancy must be proved, and also repair of the pew by the party, if any has been re

seeds, red tartar, dyeing herbs, dried fruits, capers, olives, oil, cotton, wool, and woollen cloths. There is a considera

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ble weekly market, and there are three yearly fairs. The
neighbouring hills are covered with vines and almond and
olive trees, and there is near the town an old castle built
by the Constable Montmorency [MONTMORENCY], to whose
family the county of Pézénas at one time belonged. There
are a high school, a subordinate court of justice, and an
Exchange.

PEZO PORUS. [PSITTACIDE.]

PFEFFEL, GOTTLIEB CONRAD, a German writer of classic reputation in that branch of literature which comprises the tale, the fable, and the epistle, was born June 28th, 1736, at Colmar, where his father held an appointment in the office for foreign affairs. His parent dying in 1738, Pfeffel was left entirely to the charge of an excellent mother. At the age of fifteen he was sent to the university of Halle for the purpose of applying himself to the study of jurisprudence; but this plan was entirely frustrated by a severe attack of ophthalmia, which terminated in his total blindness at the age of twenty-one. He married about two years after this misfortune, and at a later period (1773) obtained permission to establish at Colmar a seminary for the education of Protestant youths, in conducting which he had an able colleague in his friend Hofrath Lerse. Among his pupils, who were chiefly the sons of Swiss families, were many who afterwards distinguished themselves. The changes produced by the French revolution however caused this school, which bore the title of a military one, to be broken up, and Pfeffel henceforth applied himself entirely to those literary occupations which, notwithstanding his blindness, he had before pursued at intervals. In 1803 he was made president of the Evangelical Consistory at Colmar, then recently established. He died May 1st, 1809, just after the publication of the ninth volume of his 'Poetischen Versuche.'

His poems generally display shrewdness and humour, together with a strong vein of moral and religious feeling; but his peculiar power shows itself most in his fables, which have frequently an epigrammatic energy and a piquant turn of expression that render the moral couched in them additionally striking and effective. Besides these and his tales, his other productions consist chiefly of poetical epistles, epigrams, ballads, and lyrical pieces. In addition to these original compositions, he translated a great many dramatic pieces from the French, which he published in five separate volumes or collections, from 1765 to 1774. These were indeed rather free versions than literal translations of the originals; for he did not scruple to retrench on the one hand what he considered their prolixities, and on the other to expand those parts of the dialogue which furnished hints for the purpose. His own dramatic attempts were less successful, since notwithstanding the skill shown in the arrangement of their plan, and the merit of many of their detached scenes, they were deficient in sustained interest and effect. PFORZHEIM, the most important manufacturing town in the grand-duchy of Baden, is situated in 48° 55' Ň. lat. and 8° 48′ E. long., in the circle of the Middle Rhine, at the entrance of the Black Forest, and on the navigable river Ens, near its junction with the Nagold and Wurm. It is surrounded with a wall and moat, and consists of the town and three suburbs. There are four churches and an antient palace, the church of which contains a handsome monument to the late Duke Charles Frederick. Among the public institutions are a convent for noble ladies, an hospital, an infirmary, an orphan-house, an asylum for the deaf and dumb, &c. The population of the town and suburbs is above 6500. The manufacture of trinkets employs above 1000 workmen; the value of the articles manufactured by them (in which no gold under 14 carats must be used) is 100,000l. sterling per annum. The manufactures of watches, superfine cloth and kerseymere, leather, hardware, and ironwire are flourishing. There are also an iron-foundry, which furnishes annually 5000 cwt. of bar-iron, a copper-foundry, a manufactory of chemicals, many establishments for dyeing Turkish-red, and extensive bleaching-grounds. Pforzheim has a very great trade in timber from the neighbouring forests of Hagenschiess, which is floated down the Neckar and the Rhine to Holland. The trade in corn, oil, wine, and cattle is not inconsiderable, for which the situation of the town, on the high road from France to the south of Germany, is very favourable. The inhabitants have been always distinguished for their bravery and devoted attachment to their princes. Four hundred citizens, commanded by their burgomaster Deimling, formed the body.

guard of the brave margrave George Frederick, in the battle of Wimpfen, May 6, 1622, in which, with 20,000 men, he engaged the far superior Imperial army commanded by Tilly. Victory already inclined to his side, when the powderwaggons were blown up, and scattered destruction among his troops. Flight was the only resource, which the Margrave, at the earnest entreaty of his followers, resolved to adopt. But even flight could not have saved them, if those 400 brave men had not arrested the advance of the enemy, till the Margrave and all the rest of the army were in safety, by sacrificing their lives to the last man.

(G. L. Posselts, Gedächtnissrede auf die Gefallenen.) PHACOCHORUS. [SUIDE.]

PHAEDRUS, a Latin writer of the Augustan age, according to the general opinion. Little is known of his life except that it appears that he was born in Thrace, was brought to Rome in his youth as a slave, found friends at Rome, applied himself to study, and became a perfect master of the Roman language, and was made free by Augustus, who patronised him. He wrote several books of fables in iambic verse, borrowing, as he says in his prologue, his subjects from Aesop. The fables of Phaedrus have long been a favourite work, for the graceful simplicity of their style, the pointedness of their humour, and the general soundness of their morality. [FABLE.] They were first published by Pithou, in 1596, from a MS. supposed to have been written in the tenth century, and which is called the Rosamboanus MS., from the name of the owner of it. Another MS., which existed at Rheims, was destroyed by fire in the last century, but it had been previously collated with Pithou's edition, and the variations had been copied, as well as those in another MS., called Danielinus, and they have been used in the later editions of Phaedrus. The latest edition of Phaedrus has the following title:- Phaedri Augusti Liberti Fabulæ Aesopiæ, prima editio critica cum integra varietate Codd. Pithoeani, Remensis, Danielini, Perottini, et editionis principis, reliqua vero selecta,' by J. C. Orell, 8vo., Zürich, 1832, with an Introduction.' Perotto, bishop of Manfredonia in the fifteenth century, made a collection of Latin fables from Phaedrus, Avienus, and others, for the instruction of his nephew, among which were thirty-two fables which are not contained in the usual editions of Phaedrus, in five books. These fables, Fabula Nova,' were published at Naples, in 1808, as an additional or sixth book of Phaedrus. Perotto's MS. however was found much damaged, and the fables were in a mutilated state. Since that time Angelo Mai has discovered in the Vatican Library another MS. of Perotto, in a state of good preservation, with a prefatory letter of the bishop to his friend Mannus Veltrius, of Viterbo, and from this MS. the additional fables have been published in a correct form: Phaedri Fabulæ Novæ XXXII., e Codice Vaticano reintegratæ ab A. Maio, Supplementum Editionis Orellianæ,' Zürich, 1832. There seems little doubt now that these fables belong to Phaedrus; they are perfectly similar in style and manner to the rest. The Fables of Phaedrus were also edited by Bentley, and appended to his edition of Terence.

PHÆNICORNIS. [SHRIKES.]

PHÆNO'GAMOUS or PHANERO'GAMOUS plants are those which have visible flowers and seeds. The words are used indifferently in contradistinction to Cryptogamous, which includes those plants which either have no sexes or none which are distinctly visible.

PHAETON (Ornithology). [TROPIC BIRD.] PHAKELLOPLEU'RA, the Rev. Lansdown Guilding's name for a genus of Chitons, with rather small dorsal plates, and the fleshy zone ornamented with a broad single row of elongated spiculate fasciculi. Example, Chiton fascicularis. [CHITONS, Vol. vii., p. 96.]

Mr. Swainson (Malacology, 1840), not this tribe, has adopted the genera and Guilding. (Zool. Journ., vol. v., p. 25.) genera are:

1. Chiton, which he divides thus:

Zone distinctly scaly.

having analysed arrangement of Mr. Guilding's

Disk subcarinate, transverse-marginal areola distinct.
Example, Chiton squamosus, Sowerb., Gen., f. 2; Ch. Ca-
pensis, Gray, &c.

Disk rounded, smooth; areola angulate and obsolete.
Example, Chiton marmoratus, Blainy.

**

Zone slightly reticulated.

(I., xiii. 126; see also Il., iv. 332, vi. 83); and the close The mora is said to have consisted of 600 men, but its

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The only existing works expressly written on the subject of the Greek tactics are those of Alian and his abbreviator Arrian, and these authors lived in the time of Hadrian and Antoninus, that is, long after the age in which the phalanx was superseded by the legion. Therefore, since their descriptions do not agree with what we find concerning the phalanx in the works of Thucydides and Xenophon, it seems reasonable to conclude that they appertain to the state of this body of troops in and subsequent to the times of Philip and Alexander. Elian makes the phalanx to consist of 16,384 men of the class called onλirai, or heavyarmed infantry; but this must be understood to be the whole body of that denomination in an army, and to be composed of four simple phalanges. Joined to the phalanx is a division (irayua), consisting of half that number of men of the class called Moi, or light-armed troops, and another, called also an epitagma, of cavalry (ing), consisting of one-fourth of the number.

The peltaste (λraorai), who are also mentioned by Ælian, but not as appertaining to the phalanx, united in some measure the firmness of the heavy with the agility of the light armed men. They were first instituted by the Athenian commander Iphicrates, and in the course of time they became very numerous in the Greek armies: they served as the guards of the princes, and were often reckoned among the heavy-armed troops.

The number above mentioned is expressly said to have been chosen because it is continually divisible by 2, and thus admits of a very simple distribution of numbers for the subdivisions. What really was the strength of the phalanx when in the field, during the existence of the Macedonian monarchy, is uncertain, and probably it varied much. The army of Alexander at the battle of Arbela is said to have consisted of two great phalanges, each divided into four parts, which were also called by that name; there were besides, two divisions of peltastæ; in all, according to Arrian, 40,000 infantry: and there were 7000 cavalry. (Exped. Alex., lib. iii.) At the battle of Raphea, between Antiochus and Ptolemy, there is said to have been a phalanx of 20,000 men in the army of the former. (Polyb., lib. v., c. 8.)

The simple phalanx, according to Elian, consisted of 4096 men; one half of that number, or 2048 men, constituted the merarchy (uspapxía); and one-fourth, or 1024 men, was called a chiliarchy (xiaoxia). One-fourth of the last constituted a syntagma (ouvrayμa), or xenagy (Eevayia), which was a complete square of 16 men each way; and the lowest subdivision was called lochus (óyos), decuria (deràs), or enomoty (Evoporía), which is, by that writer, considered as a single file of 16 men. The officers do not appear to be included in the numbers of the different divisions: each xenagy had its own chief or captain (ouvrayμarápyns) at the head, and a lieutenant (oupayóç) brought up the rear. The leader of a single file is called by Ælian a decurion, perhaps because originally the file consisted of 10 men. A phalangarch commanded each phalanx.

Alian divides the epitagma of light troops into sections, each of which has half the strength of the corresponding division in the phalanx; the lowest division is the lochus or file, which consists of 8 men. The epitagma of cavalry is divided in the same proportions as the bodies of infantry, down to the lowest subdivision, which is called in, and is made to consist of 64 men.

The phalangists were armed with helmets, cuirasses, and greaves; and in the early ages they carried an oval buckler and a pike, the latter about 10 feet long. The change introduced by Philip in the arms of the oplita consisted in the substitution of a larger shield, and of the capioca, a pike from 18 to 20 feet in length. The arms of the peltastæ seem to have differed from those of the oplita chiefly in the buckler (from whence their designation is derived) being round and only about two feet three inches in diameter, and in the pike being short. It is said that Iphicrates, instead of a metal cuirass, allowed to this class of troops only a corslet of strong linen; but apparently this regulation was not always followed. The light-armed troops were frequently provided with a helmet only, and their arms were small javelins, bows, or slings.

A phalanx, in line, was considered as being constituted of two equal parts or wings (ipara); there was no central division, but the place of junction of the two wings was called the bupalos. In the usual order of battle it was drawn

up with its front parallel to that of the enemy, but it not unfrequently happened that one wing was kept retired. This last method was practised by Epaminondas at the battle of Leuctra; the wing engaged was strengthened so as to have 20 men in depth, and the line gradually diminished to the opposite extremity, where it was only six men deep. Sometimes also two phalanges advanced in columns, with their heads united, the two lines gradually diverging to the right and left; and this is that disposition which was called Eubolov, or the wedge.

The phalanx was frequently drawn up in the form of a quadrangle, which might be solid or hollow, according to circumstances; and this disposition was called the plinth (Aviov), or the plæsium (λaioiov). When a double phalanx was formed with their fronts in reversed positions, the order was called appiorouoc. The order called avrioropoc seems to have been similar to the last, except that the men faced in opposite directions, from the centre towards the wings.

When standing at open order, each soldier in the phalanx was allowed a square space about six feet each way; but when prepared for action, this was reduced to three feet, and occasionally to about eighteen inches. The fileleaders and the rear-rank men were always chosen from the best of the troops, for on the first depended chiefly the success of the charge, and the latter performed the important duty of urging on the men immediately before him, in order that the whole body might not give way by the counter-pressure of the enemy's mass.

After the introduction of the Macedonian sarissa above mentioned, the phalanx might present a formidable array of five ranks of such weapons projecting horizontally before the front of the line; for, admitting the men to be three feet from each other in depth, and that each man held in his hands about six feet of the length of the weapon, the point of that which belonged to the fifth man would project two feet beyond the file leader. Ælian also mentions another and perhaps a preferable practice, which was that of giving to the men from the first to the third or fourth rank spears successively longer in proportion to the distance of the rank from the front; in which case all those weapons must have projected equally before the line of troops.

The position of the phalanx was sometimes changed by a wheel of the whole body on either extremity as a pivot; and this was done with the men drawn up in close order. But the reversion of the front was performed in one of the three following ways:-The Cretan method, as it was called, consisted in making each file countermarch almost upon the ground it occupied, the file-leader going to the right-about, and moving to the rear, all the men of the file following him till the rear-rank man came into the line which was before the front. The Spartan method was also performed by a countermarch, but the file-leader moved to the rear, followed by the other men, till he arrived at a distance from his first place equal to twice the depth of the phalanx, the rear-rank man only changing his front. Lastly, the Macedonian method was performed by the front-rank man going right about on his own spot, the others passing him in succession and arranging themselves behind him. These movements appear to have been preferred by the Greeks to a simple change of front to be effected by making each man turn upon the ground he occupied, since they allowed the fileleaders to constitute always the foremost rank of the line.

The number of men in front of the phalanx was doubled by causing every second man in the depth to move up to the interval between every two men in the rank immediately before him; thus reducing the depth of the phalanx to eight files without extending the front. And when the front was to be extended without increasing the number of men in it, the troops merely, by a flank movement, opened out from the centre each way. Arrian justly observes that these evolutions should be avoided when in presence of the enemy; and he adds that it would be preferable to extend the front by bringing up cavalry or light troops to the wings.

On a march, the phalanx was thrown into a column, whose breadth depended on that of the road; and a formation of some separate bodies, consisting of 100 men each, for the purpose of protecting the main body while returning to its former order after having passed a defile, is mentioned by Xenophon (Anabasis, lib. iii.) as being then, for the first time, employed. The march of two phalanges in parallel and

J