sovereign of them all; but he was placed between CHAPTER IV. two fires, for both Taxiles on one side, and his nephew Porus the younger on his eastern frontier, were his enemies. There were also other kings both on the north and on the south, who were apparently either at war with Porus the elder, or else in friendly alliance. It would thus seem, from the eminence assigned to Porus the elder, that his authority was not limited to the extent of his kingdom; and that he was at least the nominal suzerain or lord-paramount of the Punjab, if not of Cabul; whilst the socalled hostile sovereigns were originally nothing more than refractory vassal kings.5

of ancient India,

Here it should be remarked that Asiatic empires Political system are generally speaking mere congeries of provinces, satrapies, or vassal kingdoms, severally ruled by local governors or kings, who are each expected to pay a yearly tribute to the suzerain, and to contribute a military contingent in the event of an imperial war. Such a political system is naturally exposed to dismemberment from internal revolt, to sudden revolutions from court factions, and to foreign invasion in moments of weakness or false security. It can only be maintained by the sword, supported as far as may be by an aristocratic priesthood; and hedged round with the pomp, prestige,

5 This supremacy of Porus is further confirmed by Hindú tradition. The existence of an ancient Kshatriya empire in the Punjab, under what is known as the Lunar dynasty of Rajas, or children of the Moon, is frequently referred to in Sanskrit literature. It was known as the empire of Puru, Bharata, and the Pandavas; and the Sanskrit name of Puru seems still to be preserved in the Greek Porus. Ferishta, the Mussulman historian, states that Porus or P'hoor conquered the whole of Hindustan, including Bengal, as far as the ocean, and that he refused to pay tribute to the king of Persia. Ferishta adds:-"The Brahmanical and other historians are agreed that P'hoor marched his army to the frontier of India in order to oppose the invasion of Alexander. Introductory chapter on the Hindus, vol. i. Briggs' translation.

CHAPTER IV. and supposed divine right of royalty. In spite, however, of revolution and practical dismemberment, such is the conservative character of Asiatic ideas, and the force of routine and traditional authority, that the nominal supremacy of a suzerain will often be retained long after the political ties have been virtually destroyed. Such apparently was the state of Cabul and the Punjab at the time of the invasion of Alexander; although, as will be seen hereafter, he deemed it politic to treat the refractory vassal kings as independent sovereigns.

Strategy of
Alexander.

The military operations of Alexander were not those of an ordinary invader. His oriental experiences had already rendered him suspicious of intrigues, but had not entirely destroyed the native generosity of his character. In like manner his oriental indulgences had perverted his moral sense, but had not vitiated his military and political culture. He came flushed with the glory of his Asiatic conquests, profoundly believing in his own high destiny, proud of himself and his irresistible phalanx, but, like a true soldier, neglecting no measure of precaution that would guard against any probable or possible disaster. He feared no enemy in front, but his knowledge of Asiatics taught him that danger might always be apprehended in his rear; that he must make every footing sure before advancing another step; in other words, that he must obtain by policy or force the full submission of every enemy

The state of India under the Mogul empire during the eighteenth century was much in the same condition; and Clive and Hastings followed the policy of Alexander in treating Subahdars and Nawabs of provinces as independent sovereigns. But such is the power of a mere name, that generations after the Mogul emperor had been stripped of every shred of authority, his shadow of a throne became the rallying point of the mutineers in 1857.

whom he might be compelled to leave behind him. CHAPTER IV. He was prepared to be liberal to those who submitted without a battle; and to be equally liberal to those who only surrendered after an obstinate resistance. But he was resolved to punish with remorseless severity all who attempted to revolt after once submitting, or who sought to deceive him by cajolery or lies.

submission of Taxiles.

The first measure of Alexander was a wise stroke Policy in Cabul: of policy. On reaching the Cabul river he sent messengers in advance to the neighbouring princes to announce his arrival, and call upon them to attend his camp and tender their submission. Probably he thus acted in the capacity of sovereign lord of Persia, to whom the whole region had been tributary in a previous generation; but the measure invested him with the character of a protector to all who were hostile to Porus. The result was that many of the princes of the country hastened to his camp. Amongst these was Taxiles, who brought presents for Alexander of extreme richness and rarity. The submission of Taxiles was very gratifying to Alexander. The kingdom of Taxiles intervened between the river Indus and the kingdom of Porus, which commenced at the Jhelum; and thus formed an admirable basis for military operations against Porus. Accordingly Alexander sent a detachment northward to occupy the city and kingdom of Peukelaotis, with the view of making preparations for ferrying the army across the Indus.

7 Herodotus, iii. 94, 95, 102.

Taxiles accompanied the expedition, and evidently had an eye to his own interest. He was at enmity with Astes, the king of Peukelaotis; for he had previously harboured a political refugee from Astes, named Sangæus; and it is difficult to avoid the suspicion that he now intrigued to procure the transfer of the

CHAPTER IV.

Warlike cha

racter of the

tribes in Cabul.

Reduction of
the Assacani.
Capture of
Aornos.

Whilst preparations were in progress at Peukelaotis, Alexander was engaged in reducing the tribes eastward of the Indus. These people were dwelling in the territory, which is now called Cabul, and occupied by the Afghans. They are described as being more war-like than any of the other Indians. When defeated in the plains they retired to their walled towns, and when their towns were taken by assault they fled to the mountains. Sometimes they were so alarmed at the reports of Alexander's prowess that they burnt down their towns, and escaped to the mountains, before he came up. At last after some desperate fighting they lost courage, and dispersed to their more distant strongholds.' The most formidable enemy was a queen of a tribe called the Assacani. Her name was Cleophes, and she reigned in a city named Massaga. She had engaged seven thousand brave mercenaries from the interior of India, who marched out into the plain and offered the Macedonians battle. Alexander drew them some distance from the city by pretending to retreat, and then turned round and attacked them with his phalanx. The Macedonians gained a complete victory, but could not prevent the fugitives from escaping to the city. Massaga was then besieged, and made an obstinate resistance. At last the mercenaries were disheartened by the death of their commander and their own losses in killed and wounded, and sent a herald to Alexander, and

kingdom from Astes to Sangaus. The incident, however, is very simply nar rated by Arrian. Astes attempted a revolt, and his city was captured after a thirty days' siege, and he himself was slain. The kingdom was then given to Sangæus by Alexander. Arrian, Exped. iv. 23.

9 Arrian, Exped. iv. 25, 26.

offered to enter his service. The offer was accepted. CHAPTER IV. The mercenaries left the city, and drew up on a little hill near the Macedonian camp. Alexander, however, discovered that they intended to desert that very night, rather than fight their own countrymen; and he accordingly surrounded the hill and cut them all off. He then captured the city, and finally received the submission of queen Cleophes, and re-instated her in the possession of her kingdom.10 The campaign westward of the Indus was brought to a close by the capture of a famous natural fortress known as Aornos, which was deemed impregnable, and had been a place of refuge for a large number of defeated warriors. Alexander took it after a prolonged struggle. It has been identified with the Mahabun mountain."

his Alexander

the

When Alexander had fully established authority in Cabul he crossed the Indus into Punjab. Here he halted some time at the city of Taxila, and then marched to the river Jhelum, and found that Porus the elder was encamped on the opposite bank with a large force of cavalry and infantry, together with chariots and elephants. The decisive battle which followed on the Jhelum is one of the most remarkable actions in ancient story. Alexander had to cross the river, not only in the face of his enemy, but whilst exposed to the wind and rain of the south-west monsoon. The passage

10 Quintus Curtius relates (viii. 10) that this queen obtained the restoration of her kingdom by the sacrifice of her honour. Justin (xii. 11) repeats the story. Quintus Curtius was no doubt a romancer, but still the incident is not in itself opposed to the law of war as regards women, which prevailed amongst the ancient Kshatriyas. See ante, p. 23.

Arrian, Exped. iv. 25-30.

General Cunningham prefers identifying Aornos with a ruined fortress named Ráni-gat.-Ancient Geog. of India, p. 58.

crosses the

Jhelum in the

presence of the enemy.