CHAPTER I. during the dim and remote period which preceded it, and which is generally known as Vedic and Brahmanic times.

Age preceding Buddhism: distinction be

and Brahmanic

The first important feature of the Hindú era, is tween the Vedic the broad distinction which originally existed be periods. tween the Vedic and Brahmanic elements in the early history. It will be seen hereafter that the Vedic Aryans, who colonized the Punjab in a remote antiquity, were worshippers of the spirits or elements of the universe as gods and goddesses, and invoked those deities in old Sanskrit verses known as Vedic hymns. At some subsequent period the Bráhmans appeared upon the scene, and converted the old Vedic deities into representations or manifestations of the supreme spirit, whom they worshipped as Brahma. At the same time the Bráhmans effected other changes in Vedic ideas and usages, which will be found invested with a deep significance. The Vedic Aryans had neither temples, idols, nor rigid caste distinctions. They worshipped their deities as living existences; and they apparently offered up their own sacrifices and invocations, and performed their own domestic rites, without the aid of any caste of priests whatever. The Bráhmans, on the contrary, appear to have encouraged the construction of temples, and to have set up images or idols, which were worshipped individually and collectively as representatives of the one supreme being. The Bráhmans also seem to have distributed the people into castes; or at any rate to have recognized and sanctioned such caste distinctions; and they arrogated to themselves the position of an exclusive and hereditary priesthood, through whom alone the people were to present their sacri

fices and offer their prayers. These distinctions CHAPTER I. between Vedic and Brahmanic religions must be all the more borne in mind, because the Bráhmans have not only modified the Vedic religion, but have also garbled and interpolated Vedic literature, for the purpose of bringing old Vedic traditions and usages into conformity with later Brahmanical ideas. This point will be sufficiently illustrated in future pages; for the present it will suffice to indicate the interval of thought which separates what is purely Vedic from what is purely Brahmanical.

the history of

dhist period.

The materials for the history of India prior to Materials for the advent of Buddhism are to be found in the the pre-Bud. Vedic hymns and the Hindú epics. The Vedic hymns are valuable as the expression of the religious Vedic hymns. views of the primitive but intellectual Aryan people, who invaded and occupied north-western India in times primeval, and worshipped the deities or elements of the universe in an age when Brahmanism was unknown. The hymns are singularly free from any Brahmanical element, although later commentators have laboured to interpret them in accordance with Brahmanical teaching. The two voluminous epics, Hindu cpics: known as the Mahá Bhárata and Rámáyana, fall ical character. under a totally different category. They are regarded by the whole Hindú population of India as the national treasuries of legend and tradition; and consequently may be accepted as the modern and popular conceptions of the Hindú people as regards their past history. But they cannot be reduced to

2 The term Vedic hymns is here specially confined to the hymns or mantras of the Rig-Veda, which is the earliest of the four Vedas, and the only one which can be rendered fairly available for history. Compare History, Vol. II., Part V. Brahmanic Period, chap. iv.

their Brahman

CHAPTER I. the form of chronicles. They refer to different stages in the progress of the people, but there are no link to unite them into a chain of consecutive history. In one sense alone they seem to have been formed into a harmonious whole. Every incident, whether it originated in Vedic, Brahmanic, or Buddhist times, has been reproduced in Brahmanic forms by compilers who apparently flourished in the age of Brahmanical revival. In other words, every legend and tradition has been systematically Brahmanized for the purpose of bringing all the religions, laws, and usages of the different races of India into conformity with Brahmanical ideas. When stripped of these Brahmanical grafts and overgrowth, the legends and traditions will be found to furnish large illustrations of old Hindú civilization. Again, when considered as a whole, they are valuable as indicating the process by which the varied populations of India have been brought under Brahmanical influence. But Sanskrit literature, whether Vedic or Brahmanic, has no historical annals in the modern Absence of chro- sense of the word. It is devoid of all real sequence or chronology. It is grievously marred by the introduction of monstrous and supernatural fables, which are revolting to European ideas. At the best it furnishes little more than isolated pictures of the past, which have been preserved in the ballads of a semi-barbarous age, and converted by later Brahmanical compilers into vehicles for religious teaching.

nology.

But although it is impossible to reduce the varied groups of Hindú traditions into historical form, it is possible to indicate the progress of religious thought from a very remote period. Relics

I

ligious belief.

of pre-historic races have preserved their ancient CHAPTER I. religion intact in remote hills and jungles, as it Elements of reexisted in times primeval, and long before the priestly Bráhman appeared upon the scene. Again, amongst nations and races which have been brought under the pale of Brahmanical orthodoxy, organic remains of the old faiths are still discernible beneath the crust of Brahmanical teaching. It may thus be practicable to trace out the more important elements of religious belief which have been seething in the Hindú intellect from the dawn of history. At the same time it is possible also to indicate the more important migrations of different races into India, and their ultimate settlement in the regions which they now occupy; and thus to obtain, however hazy and obscure, an approximate idea of the political condition of the people during the unrecorded age which precedes historic times.

divisions of

The India: Hindu

stan, the Dek

Its han, and the

Peninsula.

Some light may be thrown on the early history Geographical of India by a brief glance at its geography. continent of India is an inverted triangle. northern boundary is formed by the mighty range of the Himalayas, which walls it off from the remote regions of Turkistan and Chinese Tartary. Its west and eastern sides are respectively washed by the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. It may be divided into three belts or zones, namely-Hindustan in the north, the Dekhan in the centre, and the Peninsula in the south. These zones are formed by three lines, running from west to east, namelythe Himalayan wall to the north of Hindustan, the line of the Nerbudda river to the north of the Dekhan, and the line of the river Krishna which

Th

CHAPTER I. separates the Dekhan from the Peninsula. lines of these two rivers must be prolonged in eac case from sea to sea.

Aryan and
Turanian gates.

India might thus be described as a triangle having its northern frontier walled in by the Hima layas, and its western and eastern coasts shut in b the sea. But between the Himalayan wall and the sea there is at either end of Hindustan a considerable interval, which has formed a gate or highway into India from time immemorial. The Aryan gate is on the north-west of Hindustan, and is formed by the Punjab, including the valley of the Indus and its tributaries. From a remote antiquity successive waves of Vedic Aryans from Iran or Aryana have passed through this gate for the colonization of India. The Turanian gate is in the east of Hindustan, and is formed by the valley of the river Brahmaputra, which coils round the Himalayas like a huge serpent, and finally falls into the Bay of Bengal. From a period long prior to the Aryan invasions, various unclassed races of supposed Turanian origin from high Asia, have poured down this valley, and found their way through Bengal into Hindustan.3

3 The terms Aryan and Turanian gates are used only in a general sense, and with considerable reservation. Thus, although the Punjab has been described as the Aryan gate, by which the Vedic-Aryans entered Hindustan, it has also been the highway for Afghan, Turki, and Mogul invaders, who certainly cannot be referred to an Aryan origin. Again, although the Himalayan range has been described as the northern wall of Hindustan, there is reason to believe that it has often been surmounted by Thibetan races who have found their way over the elevated heights into Hindustan. But it is impossible for the historian to trace out the several migrations in ancient times; and it will suffice to indicate with tolerable clearness those which possess a real historical significance from having left a permanent impress upon the religious development of the people of India. For a valuable collection of original data, see Dr Muir's Sanskrit Texts.