tentacula, are joined to these vesicular parts to compose the Species provided with two sorts of locomotive organs, the whole apparent organization of the animal. Cuvier ad is anterior ones hollow, the posterior solid. that it is not observed whether they have a mouth well datinguishable as such. (Règne Animal, 1830.)

plants, named after the subject of our last article, but whose | xxxi. 10.) After the defeat and death of Hamilcar by the limits and position in a natural series are unsettled. Ac- Roman prætor L. Furius Purpureus, the colony of Placentia cording to most writers they are regarded as apetalous was restored. Tacitus (Histor., ii. 21) mentions Placentia plants and allies of the Chenopodiaceous and Polygonaceous as being gallantly defended by Spurinna, a captain of Vitelorders, from which their distinct ovaries chiefly distinguish lius, against the attack of Cacina, one of Otho's generals, them. But Endlicher, in his recent arrangement of plants, on which occasion a splendid amphitheatre, which stood probably influenced by the form of their embryo, and by outside of the walls, was destroyed. It was near Placentia the plurality of the carpels, considers them as related on that the Roman troops under Aurelianus were defeated in the one hand to the Caryophyllaceous, and on the other to a great battle by the Marcomanni, who had invaded Upper the Malvaceous orders. Notwithstanding the apparent dif- Italy, but Aurelianus afterwards defeated and exterminated ference between these two stations, it is probable that both the invaders, A.D. 271. are correct, and that Phytolaccaceae are really plants connecting Chenopodiacea and Caryophyllaceae. If so, they furnish a new proof of the badness of the fundamental divisions proposed for Exogens by both De Candolle and Jussieu. With the exception of Phytolacca, no plants of this order appear to be of much importance to man; their properties seem to be generally acrid.

PHYTOSAURUS, Jaeger's name for a genus of fossil Saurians. Two species are recorded, Phytosaurus Cubicodon, and Ph. Cylindricodon, both from the dolomitic sandstone (Keuper formation).

PHYTO TOMA. [MUSOPHAGIDE, vol. xvi., p. 28.] PHYTOTOMI'NE. [MUSOPHAGIDE, vol. xvi., p. 28.] PHYTOZOA'RIA. This is the general term employed by M. Ehrenberg to include the numerous species and genera of minute animals living in water, for which by other writers the titles of Infusoria and Microzoaria are preferred. There are two grand divisions, or classes as Ehrenberg calls them, of the Phytozoaria, viz. Polygastrica and Rotatoria or Rotifera; and as, judging from some examination, and in accordance with many modern writers, we consider these classes to be really and widely distinct, so as to deserve to be placed in very different parts of the scale of animal organization, we treat the subject under those terms respectively. [INFUSORIA; MICROZOARIA; POLYGASTRICA; ROTATORIA.

PHYZE'LIA, one of the divisions of the Terebelles of Savigny (Amphitrite, Cuv., part; Annelides Tubicoles of Cuv.).

PIA MATER. [BRAIN.]

In modern history Piacenza is mentioned as one of the independent Lombard cities. It afterwards had its lords or tyrants of the families of Pelavicino or Pallavicino, Scotti, and Landi. It next fell under the dominion of the Visconti dukes of Milan. After the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, A.D. 1447, and the establishment of an ephemeral republic at Milan, the citizens of Piacenza revolted against the Milanese, and placed themselves under the protection of Venice. But Francesco Sforza, being appointed commander of the Milanese, retook Piacenza, in December, 1447, when the town was given up to pillage. The soldiers of Sforza committed all sorts of violence and cruelty, sparing neither age nor sex; even the churches were not respected. The Milanese historians Corio and Simoneta fully relate those atrocities. From that time Piacenza never recovered its former prosperity: it remained subject to the Sforza dukes of Milan, was taken by the French under Louis XII., and retaken from the French by pope Julius II., after which it remained subject to the popes, together with Parma, until 1545, when pope Paul III. gave it to his son Pier Luigi Farnese. From that time it has formed part of the duchy of Parma.

Piacenza has produced many distinguished men: the scholar Valla, pope Gregory X., Cardinal Alberoni, Gio. Battista Porta, the economist Gioia, the philologist Giordani, and others who are noticed by Poggiali, Memorie per la Storia Letteraria di Piacenza,' 2 vols. 4to., 1778; and in the Memorie Storiche della Città di Piacenza,' by the same writer. A description of the buildings and other objects worthy of notice was published in 1828: Descrizione dei Monumenti e Pitture di Piacenza,' 8vo.

PIAHAU, or PIAUHAU, the name assigned to certain Cotingas (Ampelis, Linn.), whose bill is more strong and more pointed than the ordinary Cotingas. The Piauhaus are so called from their cry, and are very insectivorous. Vieillot has distinguished them by the generic name of Querula. [MUSCICAPIDE, vol. xvi., p. 11.]

PIACENZA (Placentia), a town in the duchy of Parma, and the second in importance in that state, is situated about half a mile from the southern bank of the Po, and two miles east of the confluence of the Trebbia with that river, in a fine plain bounded on the south by well cultivated his. The town is surrounded by walls and ditches, and bas a citadel, which, according to a stipulation of the Congress of Vienna of 1815, is garrisoned by Austrian troops. PIANO-FORTE, a keyed musical instrument, variously The streets are wide and straight. The principal square in formed and under different denominations, such as grand, front of the ducal palace is adorned with two equestrian square, and upright. The first notion of the square pianobronze statues of dukes Ranuccio and Alessandro Farnese. forte was taken from the clavichord by a German mechanic Piacenza abounds in fine buildings, the principal of which of the name of Viator, about ninety or a hundred years are-1, the ducal palace, commenced after the design of ago; but, for want of friends or funds, he never became Vignola, but not finished; 2, the Podesteria, or town-house, known as a maker. The invention however was followed a Gothic building of the thirteenth century; 3, the cathe-up by other musical instrument makers of the same nation, dral, a handsome Gothic structure of the twelfth century, with fresco paintings by Guercino and Luigi Caracci; 4, S. Sisto, a handsome church, richly adorned; 5, the fine church of S. Agostino; 6, Santa Maria di Campagna, which belongs to the Franciscan friars, has some fine paintings. The town library contains 30,000 volumes; the new theatre, and the school of design and architecture, are also worthy of notice.

Piacenza contains 25,000 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in the agricultural products of the Country. The establishments for public instruction consist of a superior school, or lyceum, with professors of law and medicine; a secondary or grammar school, the college Alberoni for boarders, a school of the fine arts, an institution for the education of young ladies, and several elementary schools for boys and girls.

Placentia is first mentioned as being a Roman colony, settled at the same time as Cremona, in the country conquered from the Gauls, in the year 224 B.C. (Livy, Epitome, xx.) In the second Punic war it was besieged unsuccessfully by Hasdrubal while on his march to join his brother Hannibal; but after the end of that war it was taken and destroyed by a band of Ligurians and Gauls, headed by Hamilcar, a Carthaginian officer, who had remained behind after the defeat of Hasdrubal, and had succeeded in organising the mountaineers of the Ligurian Apennines, and leading them against the Romans. (Livy,

who all left their clavichords and harpsichords for the new instrument, the piano-forte. Thus we have Zumpe, Tabel, Schudi, Kirkman, Broadwood, Stodart, Schoene, Buntebart, Pohlman, Pether, Beck, Garcha, Ganer, and a host of others.

The grand piano-forte is supposed to be of earlier date than the square piano-forte, and is said to have been the invention of a German musician of the name of Schröder, or, as others say, of Christofali, a harpsichord-maker of Padua. The first maker at all known in this country was a German of the name of Backers, but we are not aware that success attended his exertions with the solid advantages which were enjoyed by his contemporary Zumpe, who realised an ample fortune, and retired. The place of his retirement we well remember, and have heard good report of his cheerful glass and well-filled pipe, without which, in those days, a German did not acknowledge that he lived. The grand piano-forte retains the shape of the instrument from which it was taken, the harpsichord; and although that shape has been much condemned, we have never been able to see any other objection to it than its largeness; it is the natural outline of the instrument, and we do not think that a better form for it will ever be devised.

The square piano-forte, we have said, was taken from the clavichord, but it retains only its shape, with the same disposition of the strings and keys; their actions have no similarity. The action of the clavichord was simply a piece of

Fig. 3.

brass pin wire, which was placed vertically at a point where | Fig. 3, exhibiting all the Varieties of the modern Square it could be struck or pressed against its proper string, the Piano-forte as respects the Action. right-hand division of which was free to vibrate, whilst the left-hand was muffled by a piece of cloth, the object of which was to damp or stop the string, which it did the instant the finger was taken off the key. The touch of the clavichord was peculiar, partaking both of the harpsichord and the organ; in other words, both struck and pressed, and the pressure could be so varied as to produce a kind of tremblant effect. The tones were feeble, soft, and melancholy, and better suited to the student, the composer, or the solitary, than any purposes of social amusement.

a. Key. b, Brass pin wire. c, String. d, Cloth woven between the strings as a damper.

The action of the square piano-forte, on its first introduction, consisted of a key, a lifter, a hammer, and a damper. The key was the same as that of the clavichord. The lifter was a brass wire, with a piece of hide leather as a head, which was covered with a piece of soft leather as a finish. This lifter, when in motion, struck the hammer against the string, and thus produced the tone of the instrument. The damper followed the performer, and stopped the vibrations as quickly as the finger was removed from the key. (See fig. 2.) The tone of this piano-forte was thin and wiry, the hammer having only one slight covering of sheep-skin leather upon it.

Fig. 2.

d,

a

Irish damper. dd, Crank damper.

dd

a, Key. b. Hopper, by which the escape of the hammer is effected, e, String. e, Luder hammer. f, Hammer. g, Check.

The grand piano-forte, as above observed, was the invention of Schröder or Christofali, manufactured by Backers, and retains the shape of the instrument from which it was taken, the harpsichord. Here again we have two instruments alike in form, but unlike in almost every other circumstance; for their action, their tones, and the style in which they are played upon, are all entirely different. The action of the harpsichord was simply a key and what was called a jack, which was a piece of pear-tree with a small moveable tongue of holly, through which a cutting of crowquill was passed to touch the string when the jack was in action; the tone produced by this contrivance was a kind of scratch with a sound at the end of it (see fig. 4). Fig. 4. Harpsichord Jack.

a

C

Fig. 4.

a. Key. b, Lifter. c. String. d, Damper. e, Damper stick or mopstick. f. Hammer. g. Lifter. h, Brass damper.

This rude idea of a piano-forte continued in use for many years, and the first improvement upon it was introduced by Longman and Broderip, who brought out a patented invention having two additional parts in the action, namely, the hopper and the under-hammer, as they were called (see fig. 3). This patent was followed by another introduced by a, Jack. b, Tongue. c, Quill. d, Bristle spring. e, Cloth damper. Clementi and Co., the burden of which simply was an im- The action of a grand piano-forte consisted of a key, provement on the damper. It was called the Irish patent, a lever, a hammer, a button, a check, and a damper, with from its having been the invention of an Irishman of the rails and sockets to connect them. By this combination of name of Southwell; but it had simplicity only to recommend parts, every musical intention known or desired at that it, was found inconvenient, and shortly afterwards was super- time was perfectly attainable, and with admirable effects by seded by what is now called the crank damper. We cannot Mozart, Haydn, Cramer, and others (see fig. 5). But we give the name of the inventor of this improvement; it be- have now new and more severe judges to encounter: former came so instantaneously general, that the inventor was lost actions are no longer sufficient; new effects are to be given, sight of in the crowd of makers who adopted his invention. and new powers are called for. Fortunately, these things It is still in use, and is acknowledged to be a good and suf- have been accomplished, for new actions have risen up in ficient plan. The damper used by Messrs. Broadwood pre-abundance, and we have only to choose between them. viously to the introduction of the crank damper was made The more or less of excellence will, doubtless, occasionally in brass (see fig. 2), but by whom invented we do not know. puzzle the amateur, but some ready-fingered friend or acWe now come to the last addition which has been made to quaintance may be called in, and the difficulty is instantly the action of the square piano-forte, the check. This removed by a single cadence on the instrument desired; member was borrowed from the grand piano-forte, and is so whether major or minor is quite immaterial. acknowledged by the name given to those square piano- No musical instrument is so universally admired as the fortes which have it; for they are always called, par ex-piano-forte. Its compass, whether six octaves, six and a cellence, grand-square piano-fortes. The check certainly half, or seven, is sufficient for all purposes of musical comis a most important part of a piano forte, and the best of position, and may really be considered a miniature orches actions is nothing without it. The check is placed behind tra. The smaller instruments have generally only six the hammer, nearly at the end of the key; where, after the octaves, the grands have six octaves and a half; seven blow has been given, it catches the tail of the hammer, and octaves we have not yet learned to admire. The strings of holds it till another blow is required (see fig. 3). For fur- the early piano-fortes were partly of steel and partly of brass, ther information as to the square piano-forte, we refer to the treble notes of steel, and the lower notes of brass, a few the diagrams, which we hope will be found sufficient for any of which, in the bass, were over-lapped or covered, rather information that may be required. As an instrument, we open, with plated copper-wire to give them more gravity think less of the square piano-forte than any other: it has according to the length attainable in the instrument. But nether the touch, the tone, nor the appearance of either modern piano-fortes have steel wire throughout, with about the grand or the upright. an octave in the bass closely lapped with unwashed copper

the lever passes the notch, it is caught by m, and the hammer is sustained at the given height. p. Another spring, which regulates the action of o, aud determines the height it shall rise.

at the back of n, and pressing upon the front of it; by which arrangement, when

Fig. 7. Messrs. Collard and Collard's new Patent Grand
Piano-forte Action; the Invention of Mr. George
Stewart.

a

Fig. 7.

k

a, Key. b, Hopper. c, Button. d, Hopper spring. e. Hammer. f. Check, g. Hammer rail. h, Damper. ii, Rail and socket. k, Crank for damper.

Damper pedal lifter.

wire. The strings which are now used in piano-fortes are, Hammer. m, n. Block passed through the hammer butt. 0. Spring fixed considerably larger than those which were formerly used; the advantages of which are durability and firmness. The steel-wire now in use is the manufacture of Mr. Webster of Penns, near Birmingham, and is greatly superior to the once-famed German wire, now no more in esteem with English manufacturers, from the bad quality of the metal and the very imperfect manner in which it was drawn: when perfectly round, which it ought always to be, it was generally too soft; and when sufficiently hard, it was scarcely ever well manufactured, from which circumstance it was constantly false in vibration. Stops and pedals are more or less adopted in different countries. Stops can scarcely be said to be used at the present day; they properly belong to the middle age of piano-forte making, and were placed in the instrument on the left hand of the performer. The damperstop and the buff-stop were the most common; the damperstop raised the dampers from the strings, which gave continuation to the tones, and the buff-stop raised a piece of soft buff leather up to the strings, and gave the instrument somewhat the tone of the harp. Pedals are much esteemed by some performers and little by others; in foreign pianofortes we find many pedals, but in the English we have scarcely ever more than two-one for piano effects, and the other for forte. This pedal, the forte, is an effective pedal, and not at all injurious to the mechanism of the instrument; we cannot say as much of the piano pedal, for, by passing the action to one string, it is not only straining to the centres of the hammers, but is also very apt to disturb the tuning of the unisons, by which an instrument is often unfairly tested as regards its standing, and a more frequent application to the tuner is required. In lieu of this pedal, some makers have introduced a soft substance, wool or leather, between the hammers and the strings, by which something, Butt for the hopper to hit against. like the buff-stop is accomplished, but with more delicacy and vibration in its effects. The foreign name for this pedal is jeu céleste, and to us it is more agreeable, and is certainly less injurious to the action of the instrument than the more frequent piano pedal.

We will here give, in alphabetical order, a few diagrams of grand actions. Their merits we must leave to those who have occasion for them, reserving only the right to make a few brief remarks that may be necessary for the purpose of this article. They are the works of living manufacturers. Fig. 5. The Common Grand Piano-forte Action.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 8. Mr. Errard's Patent Grand Action; the Invention of his Uncle, Mr. Sebastian Errard.

Fig. 8.

a

d

d

m

m

b

a, Key. b, Lifter centred in the key and the hopper lever. c. Hopper lever. dd, Hopper. e, Hammer sustaining lever. f. Stop for e. g. Hopper button. ii, Two small wire stops acting upon e. kk, Hopper and sustaining spring. 1, Check. mm, Balance weights of lead. n, Damper. o, Hammer. p, Hammer rail.

Fig. 9. Mr. Wornum's new Grand Action. (This Action is based on the Piccolo Action.)

a

Fig. 9.

a, Key. b, Hopper and spring.

c, Hammer. d, Check. e, Button to set off the hopper. Hopper lever. g. The attached to the butt of the hammer. h, Sustaining spring linked to the end of the tie, and fixed in the front end of the hopper lever, the rising of which puts the sustaining spring in action. This spring gives the piano blow and assists in the forte and repetition. ii, Damper and fixings. k, Hammer ruler and back touch. 1, Wood spring to set up the hoppers.

Fig. 10. Mr. Zeiter's new Grand Action.

The upright piano-forte was, doubtless, taken from the upright harpsichord, and we have always understood that it was the invention of an Englishman of the name of Hancock, a musical instrument maker resident in some part of Westminster. He was a man of much ingenuity, and produced several varieties in keyed instruments; amongst which we find the organised piano-forte, the portable grand piano-forte, and an instrument, also a pianoforte, in the shape of a spinnet. The portable grand, in its day, was a successful and desirable instrument, but has long since been superseded by instruments of the kind called kit grands, boudoir grands, pocket grands, and semi grands. The next novelty was the invention of John Isaac Hawkins, who constructed an upright instrument with a