1

person who has been dead for some time. The urine is usually suppressed throughout the whole of this stage; but the dejections, becoming thinner and thinner, continue to the last. Some patients, although blue, cold, and pulseless, have sufficient strength to go about many however die of exhaustion before all these symptoms have declared themselves. In the majority of cases the spasmodic symptoms are first observed, and afterwards the collapse: the former are characterised by pain, evacuations, and moans; the second, by the suppression of voice, urine, and heat. If however the patient get over the cold stage, that of reaction commences. The coldness and blueness gradually disappear; the pulse returns, increasing in force and frequency; to the pale or blue cheek succeeds the flush; the eye brightens; the tongue, which was of a dirty white, becomes cleaner and dry; vomitings are less frequent, but diarrhoea continues; and there is some tenderness of the abdomen, with thirst, great disgust of food, and intense headache. The urine however is secreted; and if all goes on well, at the end of two or three days the features assume their usual expression; the stools are less frequent and more natural; the strength and appetite begin to return; the pulse resumes its ordinary character; and the patient is convalescent. Several varieties occur in the duration and intensity of cholera, and complications are sometimes produced of a character not less fatal than the disease itself. We are informed by M. Dalmas, that soldiers attacked in full march will retire from the ranks, lay down their arms by the road-side, and expire in two hours. During the prevalence of the last epidemic in India, several instances were heard of at Houbley and other places in that country, of natives being struck with the disease while walking in the open air; they fell down, retched a little, complained of vertigo, deafness, and blindness, and expired in a few minutes. This rapidly fatal form of cholera has not been observed in this country. The most severe cases that we have met with generally lasted five or six hours; but the average duration of the fatal cases, when they did not terminate in consecutive fever, was from twelve to fourteen hours. When reaction was established, and fever supervened, the duration of fatal cases was from four to ten days. As a general rule to guide us in forming a prognosis, it may be stated that the more complete is the collapse, the greater is the danger; and if the patient survive it, the more violent and malignant is the subsequent fever. The cases in which spasms and vomiting are most violent are by no means the most dangerous.

Morbid Anatomy of Cholera.-Dissection presents us with nothing satisfactory by which we can judge of the nature of the disease. There is general venous congestion of all the important organs in the body; but it is rare that any traces of inflammation are discovered. The gall-bladder is mostly distended with bile, and its ducts are constricted. In the stomach and intestines is found either a transparent or a turbid serous fluid, mixed with a white opake substance in the form of flakes, and similar in all respects to the matters ejected during life. The mucous membrane lining the intestinal canal is most frequently of a pale white colour, and somewhat more soft and pulpy than in its natural condition; but occasionally some degree of vascularity is observed. The urinary bladder is empty and contracted. With respect to the blood, it is found to be more viscid, and darker coloured than natural, which arises from a deficiency of its saline and watery components, and a relative increase of its solid constituents. In 1000 parts of serum, Dr. O'Shaugnessy found 133 of albumen, whereas healthy serum contains only 78 parts. On comparing the blood with the matter found in the intestines, it is manifest that the latter contains all the ingredients of the blood, except the red globules; and that the aqueous and saline parts pass out of the circulation more rapidly than the albumi

nous.

History and Statistics of Cholera.-The last outbreak of pestilential cholera, which commenced in India and traversed successively nearly every country in the world, was perhaps the most diffused and best observed of any similar Visitation: the observations we shall have to make will therefore chiefly relate to this epidemic. It originated in the district of Nuddeah and in some other parts of the delta of the Ganges, about the end of May or the beginning of June, 1817. During that year it did not extend beyond the territory of Lower Bengal; but in 1818 and the early part of 1819 it diffused itself throughout the extreme length and breadth of the Indian peninsula, yet leaving untouched many

districts placed between its lines of movement. Its progress along the lines selected was wonderfully uniform, being, for some successive months, at the rate of about one degree in a month. As early as 1818, it extended itself beyond the boundaries of Hindustan into the Burmese empire and other parts of Eastern Asia, and making gradual progress through these countries, reached China in 1820, and in the following year visited the numerous and populous islands of the Indian Archipelago. The Isle of France suffered its invasion in 1819, and some cases occurred in the same year at one point in Bourbon. In 1821 it extended along the shores of the Persian Gulf, and, during this and the following year, spread through parts of Arabia, Persia, and Syria, and closely threatened Europe. It appeared in the Russian territories in 1823, at Tefflis, Orenburg, and Astrakan; but its farther northern and western progress was stopped for a time. It however re-appeared in Orenburg in 1828, and again in 1829, and in 1830 advanced through the southern provinces of the Russian empire, till it reached Moscow on the 28th of September of that year, and Petersburg the year following. Warsaw was attacked in March, 1831; Danzig in May; Berlin, in August; Hamburg and Sunderland in October; and London and Paris in 1832. At the end of 1833 it had reached Mexico and several other parts of America. We see that the course of the epidemic was principally from east to west, and it was observed that prior to its appearance in many countries, and during its continuance, easterly winds were uncommonly prevalent; but most accurate and extensive meteorological observations, made daily during the continuance of the disease, prove that neither variations of temperature, fluctuations of the barometer, change of wind, nor the prevalence nor absence of moisture, affect in the slightest degree its duration or intensity. Bowel complaints appear to have preceded the cholera in most places, and to have continued for some months after its cessation. In many localities the disease existed only for a few weeks, while in others it lingered for several months. In the first case, the mortality was invariably high; in the last, the malignancy of the disease generally diminished as its stay was prolonged. Into whatever country or town the disease advanced, its first and most deadly fury was expended upon the poorest and most miserable of the population, and upon those who inhabited crowded districts, or low humid localities bordering on a port or river. Among this class of individuals whole families were sometimes cut off by it; indeed it is a peculiar feature of epidemic cholera that its ravages are confined almost exclusively to the poor. When the disease has appeared in a family occupying a station in life above the labouring class, we have the authority of Dr. Brown for declaring that in every case it has been confined to the individual first attacked, and has not in any instance spread to the other members of the family. The mortality from this disease is very great; but it varies somewhat in different countries and at different stages of its epidemic career. During its early prevalence in India, in 1817 and 1818, we learn, from the Report to the Medical Board at Bombay,' that there is reason to believe that of 1294 cases which received no medical assistance, every individual perished; and it is added, that it is not ascertained that any person has recovered to whom medicine had not been administered. This appalling statement however is without parallel, and it is gratifying to know that where the premonitory symptoms have been combated by early and judicious treatment, the mortality has always been diminished. This is strikingly exemplified by the statistical records kept at our different military stations in various parts of the world. In all situations and under all modes of treatment, about one in two died of the cases in civil, and one in three of those in the military hospitals; a result doubtless to be attributed to the strict surveillance exercised over the troops, by which nearly one-half of the cases among them were noticed in the premonitory stage, and consequently could be treated with a greater prospect of success than those in the civil hospitals, where the great majority of the patients were far advanced in the disease before they applied for medical aid. Of the severe cases however the mortality is probably nearly the same in all, being about 60 per cent. One of the most extraordinary features of this epidemic, observes Major Tulloch, is that the proportion of deaths to the number attacked has been very nearly alike in all the military commands of which the medical records have been investigated: for instance-In the United Kingdom, the

·

deaths were 1 in 31; in Gibraltar, 1 in 3; in Nova Scotia, 1 in 34; in Canada, 1 in 3; in Honduras, 1 in 3; in the Mauritius, 1 in 8. The Mauritius appears to be the only exception to this; so that either the epidemic was less severe in its character, or the remedies employed were more successful.

The influence of age on the mortality by this disease among the troops of the line serving in Canada is exemplified in the following table:

Age.
Under 18

18 to 25

25 to 33

33 to 40

40 to 50

Ratio of Deaths at each Age, per 1000
of strength, by Epidemic Cholera.

15.5 23.

36 6
70.6

party. Of fifteen medical reporters in India who had ob served the disease, two only thought it contagious, eight were of a contrary opinion, and five were doubtful. The medical officers at Gibraltar seem to have been almost unanimous in their opinion that the disease was not contagious. In the same ward with the cholera patients in the civil hospital were several persons labouring under other diseases, who, although in constant communication with and frequently in attendance on those suffering under the epidemic, were in no instance affected by it. In the military hospital too it was observed that the orderlies employed in attendance on the sick were not attacked in a greater proportion than others who were not so employed; and of thirty medical officers in constant attendance on the sick during the prevalence of the epidemic, all of whom, from the nature of their duties, were subject to great fatigue and anxiety, only one or two It appears from the authority to which we are indebted exhibited any symptoms of the disease, and their cases were for the foregoing table, that females were attacked in very comparatively slight. Nevertheless it is probable that under nearly the same proportion as males, but that the cases some circumstances cholera may be contagious, and this proved more generally fatal. Children were in a great opinion derives support from the great mortality which was measure exempt, though, when attacked, they rapidly sunk always observed under the operation of the quarantine laws, under it. The greater mortality of the disease in females on the inutility of which, in this disease at least, all medical has also been observed in this country. Dr. Ogden informs men are agreed. The predisposing causes of cholera may be us that of 145 fatal cases of cholera at Sunderland, 63 were gathered from its history. The poor, the old, the infirm, and males and 82 females. The information which we possess the dissipated were the principal sufferers. In the north of on the relative mortality of the disease in the different races Germany, Tuesday was always the day of the greatest morof mankind is rather meagre. The native Indians of North tality, owing, it was supposed, to the excesses committed on America suffered from it in an equal degree with the white the two or three preceding days. Hence every circumpopulation; and the same was observed with regard to the stance which tends to debilitate the system generally, whe Sepoys in our Indian army. In the Mauritius, whose popu- ther occasioned by atmospheric vicissitudes, by residence in lation in 1831 was 90,000, of which 25,000 were whites and an unhealthy locality, by unwholesome or insufficient the rest coloured, the total number of deaths recorded in the food, by the abuse of spirituous liquors, or by debauchery, civil and military hospitals was 1327. Of these 168 were acts as a predisposing cause in the production of cholera. whites, 162 coloured, and 997 blacks, principally negroes, who Treatment of Cholera.-Premising, in a prophylactic seemed peculiarly subject to the disease. This great suscep- point of view, the superiority of avoiding all the predisposing tibility of negroes to the invasion of disease, when absent causes of cholera to the absurd practice of swallowing spefrom their native land, we have had occasion to notice in the cifies against the disease, our treatment must be regulated article PHTHISIS; and that time seems to have had little according to the state in which we find the patient. If the effect in weakening this susceptibility, appears from a com- premonitory symptoms only are present, the stomach should parison of the mortality among them in the present epide-be unloaded by an emetic, and a table-spoonful of good musmic with that which took place during a similar epidemic tard constitutes a very efficient one. The diarrhoea may be in this island in the year 1775. At this date, more than 2000 treated by a full dose of calomel and opium, combined with out of 4300 slaves belonging to government were cut off by some aromatic, and a blister should be applied to the abdoit, and of those belonging to the planters nearly as many. men. Bleeding also has been recommended at this period Causes of Cholera.-That the whole series of phenomena of the disorder. If the patient is already in a state of colresults from the action of a morbific poison on the body, lapse, the various modes of treatment which have been there can be no doubt; that this morbific matter is indi- adopted prove how little is to be effected when the disease genous to some countries, and apparently has its origin in has advanced to this stage. Major Tulloch informs us that certain peculiar conditions of the soil, is supposed to be true the principal remedy of the American aborigines consisted from the effects which we find to be produced upon animal in merely swallowing large quantities of charcoal mixed with bodies living in these districts. But why the miasin arising lard; yet very nearly the same proportion recovered as among from the overflow of the Nile should produce plague; that the white inhabitants of the towns who had the advantage of the Ganges, cholera; that of the parts situated in the of the best medical science. In this country, blood-letting, tropics, yellow fever; or our own marshes, simple inter- cold affusion, hot-baths, emetics, purges, astringents, sedamittent we are entirely ignorant; nor can we, in the pre- tives, and stimulants of the most powerful kind, have been sent state of our knowledge, at all account for the epidemic successively tried with very doubtful advantage. The plan spread of some of these endemic diseases. The doctrine of however which has excited most attention is that by salines. contagion has been had recourse to in cholera, as in many Medical men, guided by chemical analysis, conceived the other diseases, in order to explain its diffusion, and it has project of supplying by artificial means the serum which been asserted by the advocates of the exclusive operation of was found wanting in the blood. With this view lavements this principle, that the disease has always been found to and potions of an alkaline solution, resembling serum in move in the line of human intercourse; and it must be ac- composition, were administered; but not being able by this knowledged, observes Dr. Brown, that while so migratory an means to arrest the vomiting, it was recommended anI animal as man inhabits the earth, it cannot well do other- put into practice by Dr. Latta of Leith to inject the same wise. But if it is meant to be asserted that its diffusion has fluid into the veins. This was first done by means of one been in proportion to the intercourse between infected and of Reid's syringes, the temperature of the solution being healthy districts, the assertion is by no means supported by kept at from 108° to 110° Fahr. Of 74 bad cases treated in facts. Its appearance at Madras, for instance, whither, ac- this method, 22 recovered, and in one case only did any cording to this doctrine, it ought to have been conveyed almost unfavourable symptoms occur, and this was from phlebitis, three months earlier by trading vessels from the infected or inflammation of the veins. As much as 33 lbs. of this districts, was simultaneous with its appearance in parallel alkaline solution have been injected in the space of $2 latitudes in the interior. It did not reach Ceylon, to which, hours, and with a successful result. Some piactitioners on the contagious principle, it ought to have been conveyed have even exceeded in amount this quantity. The compomuch earlier by shipping from the infected points of the sition of the saline injection employed by Dr. Latia concoast, until it had previously gained the nearest point to it sisted of two drachms of common salt and two scrup.es of on the continent, and had been long prevalent on both coasts carbonate of soda dissolved in sixty ounces of water; but. of the peninsula. In its importation into this country like this formula has been slightly varied in different cases. wise, supposing it to be imported, so far from following the The immediate effects observed on injecting this fluid int> great routes of human intercourse, it chose one of the least the veins are, an increase of the temperature and perspirafrequented paths. The principal evidence on this point, tion, a reappearance of the pulse, if before imperceptible which was collected during the last epidemic cholera, goes or it becomes fuller, stronger, and slower, when it was before to negative its contagious character; and the advocates of small, frequent, and feeble. The collapsed appearance of the contrary opinion are at present by far the more numerous the countenance gradually vanishes; it becomes fuller and

more natural; the eyes brighten, the thirst diminishes, and PETE'CHIÆ are small spots of a dark red colour prothe patient expresses himself in terms of gratitude or satis-duced by the effusion of drops of blood in the skin just faction at the wonderful change wrought in his feelings. beneath the cuticle. At first sight they look very like fleaBut this change is evanescent; the purging continues, and bites, but they do not disappear when they are pressed with the patient is shortly reduced to the same hopeless state in the finger. They usually indicate an altered state of the which he was previous to the adoption of this treatment. blood, and are often symptoms of very serious diseases, as By recommencing the injections, the same beneficial results in typhus fever (some varieties of which have hence been are obtained, and, provided this treatment prove successful, called petechial fever), scurvy, purpura, &c. They comthe patient does not again relapse into his former condition, monly appear also in very severe cases of small-pox, measles, but the diarrhoea and vomiting diminish, and reaction and scarlet fever, and are amongst the worst symptoms by commences. With respect to the treatment of the febrile which those diseases are marked. stage of cholera little need be said. The same recognised principles that are applicable to the treatment of pyrexia in general must be our guides in treating this fever; and the physician should never neglect to impress upon his patient the probability of a relapse, if he should indulge too soon in any dietetic or other irregularities.

PETAL is one of the inner divisions of the organs clothing a flower, and called floral envelopes. These are usually double, the outer being a calyx composed of sepals, and the inner a corolla composed of petals. Both these parts are leaves incompletely organised. The petal, being fugitive, and of very temporary utility, is generally the more delicate, containing no woody tissue to protect the spiral vessels. It is sometimes of extraordinary size, but is as frequently a very minute body. [COROLLA; MORPHOLOGY; FLOWER.] PETALISM. [OSTRACISM.]

PETALITE, a mineral which occurs massive. Structure perfectly lamellar in one direction. Cleavage parallel to the lateral planes, and both diagonals of a rhombic prism. Fracture uneven. Hardness 6 5. Brittle. Colour greyish, greenish, or reddish-white. Streak white. Lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous. Translucent. Specific gravity 2:42 to 2:45. When heated in acids, it undergoes partial decomposition; emits a blue phosphorescent light when gently heated. When by itself, it melts with difficulty, and only on the edges; but with borax, it fuses into a colourless glass.

It occurs at Utön in Sweden, and in North America. It consists, according to Gmelin, of-Silica, 74:17; Alumina, 17:41; Lithia, 5'16; Lime, 032, Water, 2:17.

PETARD. [ARTILLERY.]

PETER, ST., one of the twelve Apostles, was born at Bethsaida, on the western side of the lake of Gennesareth. His name at first was Simon, which was changed by our Lord into Cephas, a Syriac word signifying a stone or rock; in Greek, petra, whence Peter. In conjunction with Andrew his brother, he followed the occupation of a fisherman. Both were hearers of John the Baptist, by whom they were taught that Jesus Christ was the Messiah. While plying their business on the sea of Galilee, the Saviour called them to be his disciples:- Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men: immediately they quitted their boats and nets, and became his intimate friends and constant associates. Peter was one of the three, James and John being the others, who were favoured by our Lord with peculiar marks of his confidence.

Peter was a man of an open and generous nature, strong in his attachments, ardent, and precipitate. He was prompt on every occasion to exhibit his zeal in behalf of his master, of which we have a memorable instance in his conduct towards the high-priest's servant, whose ear he cut off when the Jewish officers were about to apprehend our Lord. Yet, notwithstanding the ardour of his character and his solemn declaration to the contrary, he denied Christ when he was in circumstances of danger. After the denial, Jesus turned and looked upon Peter." That look entered his heart; and stung with deep compunction, he went out and wept bitterly.

On the day of Pentecost which succeeded the ascension of our Lord, the Holy Ghost descended upon the Apostles, and produced the most astonishing and extraordinary results. The gift of tongues came upon them; and they were enabled to address the inhabitants of different nations, each PETAURUS. [MARSUPIALIA, vol. xiv., pp. 460, 461.] in his own language. On this occasion the character of St. PETA VIUS, DIONYSIUS PETAU, born at Orleans, Peter sustained a singular change; and he preached with in 1583, studied at Paris, and afterwards entered the order so much effect, that three thousand were converted to the of the Jesuits. He lectured on rhetoric in the colleges of Christian faith. He now took a prominent position among Rheims, La Flèche, and lastly at Paris, in which he was the Apostles. When a miracle is performed, it is Peter made professor of theology in 1621. He applied himself who avails himself of the opportunity, and preaches to the assiduously to classical and historical studies, and became people. When brought before the council for declaring a distinguished scholar and critic. In 1627 he published the resurrection of their Master, it is Peter who speaks in his great work on chronology, 'De Doctrinâ Temporum,' reply to the charges against them. In the case of Ananias 2 vols. folio, which was republished with considerable addi- and Sapphira, it is Peter who detects and punishes the fraud. tions by himself, as well as by Hardouin and others, in Being at Joppa in the course of his apostolic labours, 3 vols. folio, Antwerp, 1703. The Doctrinâ Temporum' he converted Cornelius, a Roman centurion, the first Gentile consists of 13 books. In the first 8 books, Petau discusses who was admitted into the Church without circumcision. the principles of the science of chronology, antient and This event was considered satisfactory evidence that the modern; in books 9 to 12, he examines the application of benefits of the Gospel were intended, not for the Jews only, chronology to history, the various æras, &c.;. and in the but for mankind universally. Shortly after, the zeal and last or 13th book he gives chronological tables of the success with which he propagated the new religion induced principal events from the creation to the reign of Justinian. Herod Agrippa to cast him into prison, from which he was After the publication of the work, Philip IV. invited Petau miraculously delivered by an angel. The last important to Madrid to fill the chair of history, but Petau declined transaction in which we find him engaged was in the aposthe offer, as well as an invitation to go to Rome by Pope tolic council held at Jerusalem, A.D. 49, when it was decided Urban VIII., preferring the tranquillity of his cell in the that Christianity required of its converts neither circumJesuits' college of Clermont at Paris, where he died in cision nor the observance of any other rite of the Jewish 1652. Just before his death he published Rationarium institute. It is supposed that he afterwards preached to Temporum,' 2 vols. 8vo., 1652, which is a kind of abridge- the Hebrew Christians dispersed through Pontus, Galatia, ment of his great work, and forms a useful manual of uni- Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and Bithynia; and that he visited versal chronology. It has gone through many editions, and Rome, A.D. 63, where he soon after suffered martyrdom. has been translated into French: Abrégé Chronologique St. Peter was the author of two Epistles, both of which de l'Histoire universelle, sacrée et profane,' 5 vols. 12mo., make part of our canonical Scriptures. The first, whose Paris, 1715. Perizonius published an edition of the Ra- genuineness and authenticity have never been questioned, tionarium Temporum,' with a continuation down to 1715. is addressed to the strangers scattered throughout Pontus, At the end of the work are lists of the Roman consuls, the Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.' There is much popes, the emperors of the Eastern and Western empires, difference of opinion among the learned with respect to the of the various dynasties of modern Europe, as well as of the persons here denominated strangers. Some suppose they councils, and of the various heresies and schisms. Petau wrote were Jewish Christians; others, that they were in the first also De Theologicis Dogmatibus,' 3 vols. fol., Antwerp, 1700. instance proselytes to Judaism, and then converts to ChristHe edited the Breviarium of Nicephorus, in Greek and Latin, ianity; others again, that they were Christians in general. with notes, Paris, 1648; the works of Synesius, bishop of There are two considerations which induce us to hold that Ptolemaïs in Cyrenaica; and those of St. Epiphanius, the first is the more probable opinion. The word strangers with a Latin translation, 2 vols. folio, Paris, 1622. He also (Пaρerionuo) properly signifies persons from another counwrote a dissertation upon Photinus, 'De Photino Heretico.' I try; and therefore it is very suitably applied to those Jewish