A seventh method of expanding a paragraph-theme into a paragraph consists in stating something that is regarded as a cause, and following it by a statement of the effects or consequences of the cause.

EXERCISE 33.

In the following paragraphs, point out ideas which are related to one another as cause to effect:

The friction in the minute arteries and capillaries presents a considerable resistance to the flow of blood through them into the small veins. In consequence of this resistance, the force of the heart's beat is spent in maintaining the whole of the arterial system in a state of great distention; the arterial walls are put greatly on the stretch by the pressure of the blood thrust into them by the repeated strokes of the heart; this is the pressure which we spoke of above as blood-pressure. — FOSTER: Physiology, chap. IV.

There was a salt marsh that bounded part of the mill-pond, on the edge of which, at high-water, we used to stand to fish for minnows. By much trampling, we had made it a mere quagmire. My proposal was to build a wharf there fit for us to stand upon, and I showed my comrades a large heap of stones which were intended for a new house near the marsh, and which would very well suit our purpose. Accordingly, in the evening, when the workmen were gone, I assembled a number of my playfellows, and working with them diligently, like so many emmets, sometimes two or three to a stone, we brought them all away and built our little wharf. The next morning the workmen were surprised at missing the stones, which were found in our wharf. Inquiry was made after the removers; we were discovered, and complained of; several of us were corrected by our fathers; and though I pleaded the usefulness of the work, mine convinced me that nothing was useful which was not honest. - FRANKLIN: Autobiography.

At court, and in the castles of the great nobles, where the pomp and state of a court were emulated, Norman-French was the only language employed; in courts of law the pleadings and judgments

were delivered in the same tongue. In short, French was the language of honor, of chivalry, and even of justice; while the far more manly and expressive Anglo-Saxon was abandoned to the use of rustics and hinds, who knew no other. Still, however, the necessary intercourse between the lords of the soil and those oppressed inferior beings by whom that soil was cultivated occasioned the gradual formation of a dialect compounded betwixt the French and the Anglo-Saxon, in which they could render themselves mutually intelligible to each other; and from this necessity arose by degrees the structure of our present English language, in which the speech of the victors and the vanquished have been so happily blended together, and which has since been so richly improved by importations from the classical languages, and from those spoken by the southern nations of Europe. - SCOTT: Ivanhoe, chap. I.

The insular form of Great Britain gave it a certain advantage over the continent during the age when the northern tribes were plundering Rome and devastating the countries of southern Europe. As their invasions of England could only be by sea, they were necessarily on a comparatively small scale. They could not at once overrun the whole land, as they did in France, and hence the strife was long maintained by hope of successful resistance; and thus courage and the virtues that depend on courage were kept alive and transmitted. - MONTGOMERY: The Leading Facts of English History, 7.

A warm and moist wind, the south-west of the Atlantic, for example, setting from the tropics, comes in contact with the colder air of the temperate regions; its temperature is lowered; it can no longer contain as great a quantity of vapor. A portion of its humidity is immediately condensed into clouds, then falls in rain.

Or the opposite; a wind charged with clouds arrives in a warmer and dryer air; comes, for example, from the Mediterranean to the Sahara, as is the case during three-fourths of the year; the burning air of the desert, having a much greater capacity for vapor, dissipates instantly all these clouds, that break up, vanish, and disappoint the excited expectation of the traveller, who hoped for refreshing rains.-GUYOT: Earth and Man, 152.

EXERCISE 34.

These paragraphs as originally written contained a statement of a cause followed by a statement of a result of that cause. Supply the omitted portion.

Some tribes, especially those that lived in the neighborhood of the great lakes, made certain tools and implements of copper, which metal, it is said, they had some means of hardening, so that it would cut wood tolerably well. But they had no iron. Accordingly

The coming of the Europeans to this country brought new races not only of men, but also of plants and animals, into contact and connection with those previously existing here. The result was

Every American boy should learn to run. The English boy is encouraged to run. In fact, at some of the great English public schools, boys of thirteen and fourteen years of age, like Tom Brown and East at Rugby, can cover six and eight miles crosscountry in the great hare-and-hounds runs. Every boy is turned out twice a week, out of doors, and made to run, and fill himself full of pure fresh air and sunshine, and gain more strength and life than any amount of weight-pulling or dumb-bell work in stuffy gymnasiums would give him. See the result

By the Articles of Confederation the General Government had no power to levy taxes, and yet it had power to incur debts. The result was

The relation of trades unions to civilization is much misunderstood, and this misunderstanding has resulted in

Organized labor has for some time been limiting the number of apprentices that may be admitted at any one time to a shop or a factory in order to learn a trade. In some lines of work one boy to four journeymen is the rule; in others, where the union influence is strong, not more than one boy for every eight, or ten, or a dozen, mechanics is permitted. The consequence is

That the laws and regulations of the Spartan constitution were admirably adapted to the end in view, the rearing of a nation

of skilful and resolute warriors, the long military supremacy of Sparta among the states of Greece abundantly attests. But when we consider the aim and object of the Spartan institutions, we must pronounce them low and unworthy. The true order of things was just reversed among the Lacedæmonians. Government exists for the individual: at Sparta the individual lived for the state. The body is intended to be the instrument of the mind: the Spartans reversed this, and attended to the education of the mind only so far as its development enhanced the effectiveness of the body as a weapon in warfare. [Results]

Sparta, in significant contrast to Athens, bequeathed nothing to posterity.

During the last fifty years the continents have been covered with a perfect network of railroads, constructed at an enormous cost of labor and capital. The aggregate length of the world's steam railways in 1883 was about 275,000 miles, sufficient, to use Mulhall's illustration, to girdle the earth eleven times at the equator, or more than sufficient to reach from the earth to the moon. The continental lines of railways are made virtually continuous round the world by connecting lines of ocean steamers. Telegraph wires traverse the continents in all directions, and cables run beneath all the oceans of the globe. By these inventions

Jefferson's interest in public affairs had become a part of his nature, and could not suddenly cease. Accordingly in his retire

ment

The people saw, in Washington, the hero of the war for independence, the austere champion of their liberties, the devoted leader of ill-fed, ill-clad armies fighting against fearful odds. They knew that his life had been pure, that under an exterior seemingly cold there beat a warm and hospitable heart. wonder then that

What

EXERCISE 35.

Develop each of the following topic-sentences into a paragraph by presenting the result which seems naturally to flow from each:

1. The use of narcotics is injurious to the nerves, and stunts the growing body.

2. The school-room was forbidding in appearance: the windows were dirty, the walls were bare and cheerless, and the switch occupied the most prominent place in the room.

3. The framers of the Constitution thought that slavery would die out after a time.

4. Poe believed that every literary production should be short enough to be read at one sitting.

5. Washington knew, better than Braddock, the methods of Indian warfare.

6. People in our crowded cities have at last learned that good sanitary arrangements are absolutely necessary to public health.

7. The colonists, as English subjects, felt themselves entitled to all the rights guaranteed by the British Constitution.

8. No two men differed more widely than Hamilton and Jefferson in their ideas of government and finance.

9. Whittier felt keenly the national disgrace of slavery. 10. Our forefathers thought that only the wisest men in the nation should choose the President.

11. School authorities have come to see the importance of physical culture.

12. The people of the North refused to believe that the South was serious in its preparations for war and in its threats of secession.

LESSON 19.

How Paragraphs Grow-Proofs.

If a writer should begin a paragraph with the topic-sentence, "The Greeks did not understand athletics at all so well as the English do," many readers would question the