England and Wales.-Elementary education in England and Wales is under the control of the Board of Education. The local administration is in the hands of the Councils of counties, of county boroughs, of non-county boroughs with population over 10,000, and of urban districts with population over 20,000. The last two authorities can transfer their powers to the local county councils. The education authorities work through committees (consisting of members of their own bodies, other persons with special qualifications, and women) and school managers. Schools aided, but not provided, by local authorities have 4 'foundation' managers and 2 managers appointed by Councils. Women may be managers. On July 31, 1918, the number of Local Education Authorities in England and Wales for enforcing school attendance was 318.

The local education authorities maintain all public elementary schools and control the expenditure necessary for this purpose. The only financial responsibility resting on the managers of non-provided' schools is to supply the buildings. In the case of schools not provided by the local authorities, their directions as to secular instruction (including the number and qualification of teachers) must be complied with; they have power to inspect the schools, and they must receive, free of charge, the use of the school-house for elementary school purposes. Education funds are derived from State grants (to the extent of at least half the net expenditure recognised by the Board of Education), local rates, &c., and the education authorities have borrowing powers. Income from endowments for such purposes of elementary education as fall within the scope of the local education authorities is paid to these authorities and applied in aid of the rates.

Elementary education is free. Attendance at school is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 14 years, and bye-laws may be made in any area requiring attendance up to the age of 15 years, either for children generally, or with certain exceptions. (For attendance at Continuation Schools, see above, p. 33.) Provision must be made for courses of advanced instruction for the older or more intelligent children; and for 'practical' instruction in cookery, laundrywork, housewifery, dairy work, handicrafts, gardening, &c. The local education authorities may supply, or aid the supply of, nursery schools and classes for children between 2 and 5 years of age, or such later age as may be approved by the Board of Education, and may make arrangements for attending to the health, nourishment, and physical welfare of such children. During 1920-21 there were 22 Nursery Schools with an average attendance of 620. Arrangements must also be made for the education of physically or mentally defective children, and epileptic children. Provision may also be made for holiday or school camps, centres for physical training, school baths, and other facilities for social and physical training. In exceptional circumstances (such as remoteness of the homes from the school) board and lodging, and other facilities, may be provided.

Provision must be made by local education authorities for attending to the health and physical condition of children in public elementary schools, and for the supply of meals.

Employment of children under the age of 12, and street-trading under the age of 14, are prohibited.

In 1920, the number of schools (public elementary, special, and certified efficient) in England and Wales for elementary education was 21,501, with accommodation for about 7,100,000 pupils. The number of scholars on the books of these schools on January 31, 1919, was: 221,862 aged under 5; 4,582,760 aged 5 and under 12; 1,113,232 aged 12 and over; total,

5,917,854. In 1920 there were 12,266 voluntary schools for ordinary public elementary education, with accommodation for about 2,370,000 pupils; and 8,705 Council schools, with accommodation for about 4,355,000 pupils; total ordinary public elementary schools, 20,971, with total accommodation for about 7,085,000. The average attendance at these schools in 1920-21 was about 5,220,000. The number of teachers in 1921 was 170,000. 'Special' schools comprised, in 1920, 59 for the blind, with accommodation for 3,260 pupils; 50 for the deaf, with accommodation for 4,620 pupils ; 197 for mentally defective children, with accommodation for 15,550 pupils ; 166 for physically defective children, with accommodation for 11,900 pupils; 6 for epileptic children with accommodation for 500 pupils; and 52 'certified efficient' schools. There were also 60 poor law schools, on March 31, 1920. On 31 March, 1920, there were 29 Nursery schools recognised by the Board, and about 340 play centres. In 1919-20 there were 88 training colleges for teachers for elementary schools in England and Wales, with accommodation for 13,578 students.

Scotland.-Under the Education (Scotland) Act, 1918, elementary edu cation is controlled by specially elected education authorities' (sce under Secondary Education, &c., p. 33). Education is compulsory up to the age of 15 years, with exemption, on certain conditions, for children over 13. 'Nursery schools' may be provided for children over 2 and under 5 years of age (or a later age, if approved by the Scottish Education Department). Existing voluntary' schools may be transferred to the education authorities, who must accept such transfer. After November, 1920, grants to voluntary schools, made under the Education (Scotland) Act, 1897, ceased, except in special circumstances.

Employment of children under the age of 13, and street-trading under the age of 17, are prohibited.

The number of elementary schools in receipt of grants in 1920 was 3,123, with accommodation for 963,000 pupils. The average attendance during the year ended August 31, 1920, was 675,000, and the average number of children on the register, 769,000. These figures include 104 intermediate schools; accommodation, 16,400; average number on register, 12,700.

There were, in 1920, 24,604 certificated teachers and 188 assistant teachers. In 1920-21 there were, at 4 training centres and 3 training colleges, 2,031 senior students; and 2,823 junior students, &c., at a large number of training centres. In 1920-21 there were 1,083 continuation class

centres.

Ireland.-Elementary education in Ireland has been, since 1831, under the control of the Commissioners of National Education in Ireland.' In 1918 there were 8,002 primary schools in operation: the average number of pupils on the registers was 688,955; and the average attendance was 488,031.

The teachers receiving personal salaries from the Commissioners on December 31, 1918, numbered approximately 7,590 principal teachers, 5,770 assistants, besides 45 workmistresses and 2,380 junior assistant teachers. There are 7 training colleges, affording facilities for the training of 1,195 King's scholars.

Northern Ireland now has its own Education Department, under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920.

JUSTICE AND CRIME

The expenditure under the Education Acts in 1918-19 was as follows:

Source of Income

37

The Supreme Court of Judicature is the ultimate authority in all cases, civil and criminal, in England and Wales. It exercises its power through the High Court of Justice and a variety of subordinate local courts. The principal courts having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery, more popularly known as 'assizes,' and the Central Criminal Court. Two or more justices of the peace, the Lord Mayor or any alderman of the City of London, or any metropolitan or borough police magistrate or other stipendiary magistrate, sitting in a court house, constitute a petty sessional court. The courts of quarter sessions are held four times a year by the justices of the county. Similar courts can be held at other times, and are then called 'general sessions.' Two justices constitute a court, but usually a larger number attend. Women may be magistrates. Certain cities and boroughs have a court of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the county justices in quarter sessions assembled, in which the recorder of the borough is the judge. The assize courts are constituted by Judges of the High Court (or in some cases by King's Counsel bearing His Majesty's special commission). These go on circuit twice or four times a year, visiting every county in turn, and hearing and determining all civil cases entered for trial and all criminal cases presented by the Grand Jury of the County or Riding of the County. Trials are, in general, by jury, and the jury, subject to the direction of the Judge on points of law, are the sole judges of the facts of the case. Women are liable to serve on juries. The Central Criminal Court is the court of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery for the City of London and a large surrounding district. The sessions of this court are held at least twelve times a year and more often if necessary. The Recorder and the Common Serjeant, and, if the number of the prisoners makes it necessary, the judge of the City of London Court, sit on the first two days, after which they are joined by one of the judges of the High Court on the rota, for whom the more serious cases are reserved. Criminal cases of special importance or complexity arising in any part of the country may, by direction of the Lord Chief Justice, be brought for trial in the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice before three H gh Court Judges, the Lord Chief Justice himself : presiding. A petty sessional court deals summarily with minor offences. Cases of a more serious nature are usually investigated by a petty sessional court before being tried at the sessions or the assizes. To every sessions, assize, and to every sitting of the Central Criminal Court, the sheriff cites 24 of the chief inhabitants of the district, of whom not less than 12 and not more than 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury, which examines the bill

of indictment against the accused person, hears the evidence of witnesses for the prosecution, and if it thinks a prima facie case for trial is made out, endorses the bill a true bill.' All criminal trials, except those which come before a court of summary jurisdiction, take place before a judge and a petty jury of twelve persons. Appeal is allowed in criminal cases: (i.) on a point of law; (ii) on a question of fact, or other sufficient ground if the judge certifies the case as fit for appeal, or the Court of Criminal Appeal grants leave to appeal; and (iii.) against the sentence (if not fixed by law) with the leave of the Appeal Court. On a conviction the judge can; if he think fit, reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court of Criminal Appeal, which can reverse, amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other method of securing the revision of a sentence is by the Royal prerogative, exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary, by which a sentence can be modified or annulled. No man can be tried again for the same crime after a petty jury has found him 'not guilty.' Nominally all the judges are appointed by the King, but in practice the Lord Chancellor (who is a minister, ex-officio president of the House of Lords, and goes out with the ministry), the Lord Chief Justice, the Lords of Appeal, who sit in the House of Lords and on the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, and the Lords Justices of Appeal who sit in the Court of Appeal, are appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and all the other judges on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.

The courts having jurisdiction in civil cases are the County Courts, created in 1846, Assizes, and the High Court. Above the High Court is the Court of Appeal, and above that the House of Lords.

The authorised strength of the police force in England and Wales on September 29, 1921, was 56,908 (including 19,307 Metropolitan police). The estimated cost in 1921-22 is 18,991,0002.

Scotland.

The High Court of Justiciary is the supremo criminal court in Scotland. It consists of all the judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less fre. quently, as the number of cases before it may require, in Edinburgh or in the circuit towns. One judge can, and usually does, try cases, but two or more preside in cases of difficulty or importance. It is the only competent court in cases of treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising, deforcement of messengers, and generally in all cases in which a higher punishment than imprisonment is by statute directed to be inflicted; and it has moreover an inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts, both those already established by common law or statute, and such as have never previously come before the courts and are not within any statute.

The sheriff of each county is the proper criminal judge in all crimes occurring within the county which infer only an arbitrary punishment, and if the case is tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review on the merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court the accused is, under the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act of 1887, regularly asked to plead in the sheriff court, and minor objections to the indictment can be wholly or in part disposed of there. Borough magistrates and justices of the peace have jurisdic tion in petty cases occurring within the burgh or county, and in a number of minor offences under various statutes.

The Court of Session exercises the highest civil jurisdiction in Scotland, with the House of Lords as a Court of Appeal.

The police force in Scotland at the end of 1919 had an authorised strength of 6,124.

JUSTICE AND CRIME

Ireland.

39

In Ireland persons charged with crime are as a rule brought before a court of petty sessions. In most cases one magistrate is sufficient to form a court to try a case to be decided at petty sessions: in some instances two are requisite. Offences are divided into two classes, those in which justices have a summary jurisdiction,' in which cases they hear and determine the complaint, the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, providing for an appeal in practically every case. The second class is indictable offences." In these cases the justice merely takes the depositions and returns the case for trial to the next court having jurisdiction to try it-quarter sessions or assize court as the case may be. In the event of the prosecution failing to make out a case against the accused, the magistrates refuse informations. The Attorney-General may send up a bill at assizes, even without the preliminary magisterial investigation, or in a case in which a magistrate has wrongly refused informations. There is this difference, however, between quarter sessions in Ireland and in England: in England they are presided over by an unpaid chairman, who need not be a lawyer and who is elected by his fellow justices of the peace for the county; while in Ireland they are presided over by a paid official, who must be a practising barrister of ten years' standing, appointed by the Crown, and who is also judge of the county court (which corresponds to the English county court). The criminal jurisdiction of a county court judge is very extensive, and the Recorder of Dublin has practically the same criminal jurisdiction as a judge of the High Court. The assizes are presided over by one of the common law judges of the High Court of Justice. In the quarter sessions, recorder's court, and assizes the trial is by jury in all cases save appeals from petty sessions. In addition to the ordinary unpaid justices there are paid resident magistrates. Criminal Law and Procedure Act contains special provisions for dealing with crime in certain cases. Nearly all the clauses of the Criminal Law and Procedure Act, however, require a proclamation of the Lord-Lieutenant in Council before they come into force. In the city of Dublin, the divisional magistrates for the police district of Dublin metropolis deal with all summary cases arising within their jurisdiction, and their jurisdiction is somewhat more extensive than that of the ordinary county justices.

The

An

Under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920, there was to be a Supreme Court of Judicature, consisting of two divisions, the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal in Southern Ireland, and similar courts in Northern Ireland, and also a High Court of Appeal for the whole of Ireland. appeal from the latter Court to the House of Lords was provided for in certain circumstances. The High Court for Northern Ireland came into existence on October 1, 1921, but the Act remained inoperative in Southern Ireland. The administration of justice in the latter area will be taken over by the Irish Free State.

The number of police on March 31, 1919, was 10,754.