the country is to be symmetrically developed, national industrial schools must be established in every provincial capital.

The industrial schools for girls are known as "escuelas profesionales," and are rather in the nature of trade schools.

There are four such schools supported by the National Government, three in Buenos Aires, and one in Cordoba.

SPECIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

In addition to the secondary schools above enumerated there are a number of special schools which deserve mention, such as the National Institute for Secondary Teachers, the National Academy of Fine Arts, the Normal Institute for Physical Culture, all in the city of Buenos Aires, and the National Institute of Chemistry, situated in San Juan, the capital of the Province of the same name.

THE NATIONAL UNIVERSITIES.

Of the three national universities, the oldest is the University of Cordoba, founded nearly three centuries ago. In fact, it is the second oldest university on the American Continent, having been founded in 1609, fifty-eight years after the University of San Marcos, of Lima, Peru.

The other two universities, Buenos Aires and La Plata, are comparatively recent foundations, the latter having been established but four years ago.

These institutions are maintained exclusively by federal appropriations. There are no tuition fees and the matriculation and graduation fees are very low. For the year 1908 the appropriations for the maintenance of these institutions were as follows: University of Cordoba, $276,825; University of Buenos Aires, $449,350; University of La Plata, $430,000.

University organization in the Argentine Republic resembles more closely the French than the American system. The faculties are to a very considerable extent independent of one another. It is true that each university has its president, but with the exception of the University of La Plata this office does not carry with it anything approaching the powers of a university president of the United States.

The absence of coordination and cooperation amongst the several faculties has been one of the fundamental weaknesses in the development of university influence in the Argentine Republic. It was with a view to remedying this defect that a different system was adopted in the organization of the National University of La Plata, established but four years ago. American university organization was used as a model after which the new institution was patterned. Instead of

making the president a mere figurehead he was vested with supervisory powers over all the faculties. The result has been a unity of university effort which neither of the older institutions has been able to attain.

In each of the three universities there is a faculty of law, a faculty of philosophy and letters, a faculty of natural sciences, and a faculty of physical and mathematical sciences. Cordoba and Buenos Aires have also a medical faculty.

The material equipment of all the professional schools, especially the medical school of the University of Buenos Aires, is excellent. Instruction in all the faculties, however, suffers severely from the lack of contact between student and professor. Most of the members of the instructing corps-and this is particularly true of the law faculties-interpret their duties narrowly, confining themselves to formal lectures, with examinations at stated periods. Thus the educational value of close contact between student and professor, upon which so much stress is laid in the United States, is entirely lost. Too much stress is laid on the final examination tests, whereas the work of the student during the college year is almost totally neglected. In this respect, also, the policy of the National University of La Plata, under the wise guidance of its present president and vicepresident, marks a distinct step in advance. Students are required to keep their work at a certain standard of efficiency, professors are encouraged, in fact required, to enter into close touch with their students. The result is that there is gradually developing an esprit de corps which is having a most salutary influence on the growth of this institution.

The National Government has been most liberal with its three universities, especially within recent years. Plans have been matured for magnificent new buildings for the faculty of physical and mathematical science (which includes engineering) of the University of Buenos Aires; a great new hospital costing $6,000,000 is to be erected as an adjunct to the medical school. Cordoba is to have a series of new buildings to commemorate her tercentenary.

CHILE.

Educational progress in Chile presents a striking contrast with the Argentine Republic. In the Argentine Republic the democratic development of the country since 1850 led to the early development of primary education. Secondary and university instruction received but little attention. It is true that the Argentine educational system remained in a primitive state until the presidency of Sarmiento. Nevertheless, even up to his time more attention was given to primary

than to secondary schools. The aristocratic social organization of Chile, on the other hand, led to the concentration of effort on the development of the secondary schools. As a result, Chile posseses the best "liceos" and "institutos" in South America. Unfortunately, the system of primary education was neglected for many years and resulted in a degree of illiteracy amongst the masses which made impassable the chasm between social classes. The country is now suffering from the results of this long-continued neglect. With the industrial progress of the country the economic condition of the laboring classes has been steadily improving, but owing to their ignorant condition and total lack of preparation, the higher wages have in many cases resulted in degeneration rather than progress. The primitive wants of the agricultural laborers were satisfied by the lower wage, and the surplus has been used, to a very considerable extent, in an increased indulgence in spirituous liquors. Saving is almost unknown to the Chilean laborer, so that the increased wages have not led to a more careful provision for the future of the family. On the other hand the increased wages, in bettering the situation of the laborer, has also given rise to a spirit of discontent, a desire for a larger share in production. The ignorance of the laborer makes him an easy prey to demagogic agitation. It is not surprising, therefore, to find the violent outbreaks of discontented laborers which have occurred from time to time within late years, and of which the most recent instance was the strike of the nitrate workers in Iquique, which led to the mowing down of 500 men and women with the machine guns of the troops.

The problem of overwhelming importance now confronting Chile is the improvement and extension of the system of primary education. It is only through the education of the masses and the consequent bridging over of the tremendous chasm that now separates the wealthy and educated from the uneducated and poorer classes that Chile will be able to retard the growth of discontent.

Her leading statesmen are fully alive to the dangers of the present situation, and it is most gratifying to find the concentration of effort in the last few years on the development of the system of primary education. Rapid progress is now being made, although the decline in national income, due to the economic crisis through which the country has been passing, has given a temporary setback to the movement.

The Chilean educational system in all its branches is national in scope and organization, that is to say, is maintained by the national treasury. No local taxes are levied for educational purposes and the

local authorities have no voice in the administration of or control over the system.

Although this lack of local cooperation in the development of the educational system has been unfortunate in many respects, it was inevitable in the absence of a well-defined public opinion upon which a local system might depend.

In marked contrast with the Argentine system, the organization of primary education in Chile is highly centralized. Teachers are appointed and paid by the Central Government and central supervision is maintained over every detail of educational organization. While subject to the final authority of the President of the Republic and the minister of public instruction, the direct control over the system of primary instruction is exercised by an inspector-general.

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It is a curious fact worthy of note, for it throws an interesting side light on Chilean social conditions, that the secondary schools, or liceos," have gradually invaded the field of the primary school through the establishment of preparatory courses. These institutions depend upon a totally different educational authority-the council of public instruction and the president of the University of Chile.

The preparatory courses of the "liceos" are attended by the sons of the well-to-do families, whereas the regular primary courses are attended by the poorer element of the population. Thus, in fact, two systems of primary education exist side by side, dependent upon different educational authorities and attracting totally different classes of the population. For this reason the primary schools have not contributed as much as might be expected toward breaking down the class barriers so marked in Chilean society.

During the past fifteen years the leading statesmen of Chile have realized that this neglect of primary instruction is a real menace to the stability and orderly development of the country. The social organization of Chile is still fundamentally aristocratic. Until comparatively recent times the bulk of the population, especially the agricultural laborers, were in a condition of peonage. The industrial advance of the country, together with the rising wage scale, has produced in the laboring classes a consciousness of power. The illiteracy of the great mass of the laboring classes greatly increases the dangers of the situation. The extension of primary instruction has therefore become one of the conditions prerequisite to orderly national advance. The country must now prepare itself to make every sacrifice for this purpose.

During the past sixteen years the primary-school facilities have increased as follows:

From this table it will be seen that the attendance in 1907 shows an increase of 15,675 over 1906.

The curriculum of the primary schools in Chile is considerably less overburdened than in the Argentine Republic. The system has, furthermore, been considerably improved by the introduction of manual training in 1899. This was begun on a small scale in 10 schools, and has gradually been extended until in 1907 there were 120 workshops installed in as many public schools. In all the girls' schools sewing has been made an integral part of the curriculum. A new plan which is about to be put into operation is to permit pupils to devote the last of the six years of primary instruction to special training in the mechanic arts.

NORMAL SCHOOLS.

In the Chilean system the normal schools and the primary schools are dependent upon the same educational authority-the inspectorgeneral of education. There are at present 15 normal schools-6 for men and 9 for women.

Owing to the low salaries paid to primary-school teachers, the normal schools are neither as numerous nor as largely attended as the educational needs of the country require. In 1907, it is true, salaries were considerably increased, but considering the high cost of living in Chile, the salaries are still far too low. Calculating the "peso" at

Owing to the financial crisis the increase was paid to but a portion of the teachers.