a

well. Later, at the end of the eighteenth century, during the reign of Carlos III, colonization from the Atlantic side increased in strength, but owing to the liberal political and religious ideas of that period, the new colonists were less under the religious influences than those who had arrived from the north. Nevertheless, the Viceroy Vertiz, who represented in Rio de la Plata the progressive politics of Carlos III, endeavored to establish a university in Buenos Aires, but although his project received the royal assent in 1778, it was not realized until much later. Meanwhile a college was established under the name of San Carlos in a building belonging to the Jesuits, in which instruction was given in grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, theology, and canon law after the old scholastic method, which was not in accordance with the new spirit of the times, and accordingly, after languishing some years, the college was suppressed definitely after the revolution of 1818. Vertiz also founded a medical school in 1780, while at the same time the nautical school and the school of geometry, in which architecture, perspective, and drawing were also taught, were established, both of which, however, came to a premature end in 1802. About this time, also, that is to say, previous to the nineteenth century, it is worthy of special historical interest to record, the revolutionary leader Belgrano desired to establish free primary schools besides special schools of agriculture, mathematics, and drawing, but his ideas were not then realized. The university of Buenos Aires owes its origin to the union of several struggling or moribund institutions, including those just mentioned and two or three similar colleges, which was effected in 1821. The university included in the scope of its activities the entire official instruction of the Province of Buenos Aires from the elementary schools to those of theology and jurisprudence. After the elementary schools came the department of secondary or preparatory studies, which included Latin, French, logic, metaphysics and rhetoric, physics and mathematics, and political economy. In the department of mathematics were included drawing and descriptive geometry with applications. The medical department included the three chairs of medicine, surgery, and clinics, both medical and surgical. The department of law had two chairs, one of natural law and the law of nations, and the other of civil law. The department of theology was left without specific provision until 1825, when the chairs of Greek and Latin, of evangelical morals and of ecclesiastical history and discipline, were founded. From the foregoing the practical and positive spirit in which the university was founded will be seen. The preparatory studies and the medical and law departments continued to flourish and exert a beneficial influence upon Argentine culture, while theology and mathematics did not acquire an equal importance or influence. The university languished, however, under the rule of Rozas, who even permitted the return of the Jesuits and commanded the rector of the university to admit them to their ancient seat, until his power fell in 1852, after which the university was reorganized upon a wider scale in accordance with modern ideas. The plan of the secondary studies was enlarged, the course in medicine was extended to six years, and in 1863 a faculty of exact sciences was added, besides which enlargement of the university itself the government of the province established certain national colleges of secondary instruction under the direction of the university. Since 1882 the functions of the university have been conducted under the four faculties of humanities and philosophy, of medicine, of law and social science, and of mathematics and the physico-natural sciences. Each faculty has its own teaching body and government and there is besides a superior council, under the presidency of the rector, composed of

• Belgrano, an Italian by origin, and a man of wealth, had received his education at the university of Salamanca.

delegates from the several faculties. Since 1885, the date of the passage by the national congress of the university law which regulates both the university of Cordova and Buenos Aires, both institutions have ceased to give secondary instruction and have devoted themselves exclusively to superior studies, resembling in that respect the new university of La Plata, founded in 1906.

V.

Education in Argentina in the second half of the nineteenth century. Since 1852 the National Government of Argentina has been actively engaged in reorganizing education throughout the country. Primary schools were established in various places, but the main efforts of the Government were directed toward improving secondary education, which was effected by establishing a number of national colegios, one in each provincial capital, each successive minister of public instruction-and there were frequent changes in the ministry between 1852 and 1884, when the present course of studies was established—having a plan of his own. Since the latter date secondary instruction is confined to one national colegio, in which the character of the instruction is modern and encyclopedic, while its ethical character is civic and democratic and the instructors are laymen. The same practical character is now given to primary instruction. Sarmiento, in his capacity as statesman and writer, turned to North America to find models for his country to follow, and in this he was followed by other patriots, conspicuous among them being Juan María Gutiérrez, in consequence of whose efforts the Argentine schools now have a marked democratic and practical stamp. The seed which those statesmen planted fell upon a rich and responsive soil and is now bearing abundant fruit.

VI.

Character of modern Argentine education.-Modern Argentine education is the result of a violent reaction against the strong religious and monarchical spirit which dominated the old régime, in education as well as in politics, and from its inception it manifested the individualistic and democratic tendencies of the philosophy of the eighteenth century. Two orders of ideas influenced the molding of the new nationality, the modern European humanistic teachings, and North American constitutionalism. The new European humanistic doctrines revealed themselves, although feebly, in the reforms of Carlos III, but acquired strength and body in the minds of the revolutionists. In spite of the prohibition by the Spanish Government of the introduction of books which would disseminate the new philosophy, the new ideas crossed the seas like the winds themselves, so that although the patriots could not find opportunities to read the original works of Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire, or the encyclopedists, the doctrines of these writers became known to them, inspired their thoughts, and determined their actions. Moreno, Monteagudo, Belgrano-all the great leaders and thinkers of the Argentine revolution-were more or less romanticists and Jacobins. After the revolution the patriots found the more typical and perfect realization of their political ideas in the North American Republic. That democratic republic, therefore, became their exemplar and a model of organization for them to copy. The ideals of a republic, of liberty, and of the rule of the sovereign people represented their highest political aspirations. American independence coincided very fortunately for their purposes with the triumph of the French Revolution.

With these elements and ideas the new nation was radically liberal and republican, and the population, although not really European by race, and not

sufficiently educated to make a proper use of republican ideas and institutions, which are difficult for novices to comprehend at first, still promptly assimilated the fundamental ideas of the new political organization, for a faculty of assimilation and a passion for progress have always been characteristic of the creole portion of the people. From the new culture could only result a democratic tendency and a profoundly practical spirit which affected education as well as politics. The scholastic spirit disappeared with the revolution, instruction ceased to be formal and abstract, and the classics were no longer cultivated with such zeal or so generally as in former years, but education followed the modern, practical tendency of the period, substituting the physico-natural sciences and modern languages for the old classical courses. The aim is no longer to produce men of erudition, but enterprising citizens.

Discipline has been and still is defective in Argentine institutions of education. There is much insubordination among the students, the explanation of which is to be found partly in the social spirit, and partly in the character of the creoles and the prevailing Jacobin ideas. But it is a mistake to complain of a fault which merely demonstrates the existence of an independent and manly spirit. When that spirit is subject to proper discipline, it will produce one of the most intelligent and generous peoples on earth.

APPENDIX II.

A BRIEF SURVEY OF EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN CHILE IN 1908.

[Population, 3,399,928 in 1905.]

The last report of this bureau contained a notice of the decided tendency to utilitarian or "modern" studies in higher education which Chile, in common with the other Spanish South American States, has developed in recent years. This tendency has arisen in response to a demand for studies of a practical and positive, or objective, nature in place of the old subjective introspective culture. The modern tendency is due to the rise of the industrial democracy during the latter half of the nineteenth century, and has been conspicuous in Europe as well as in the United States and South America. Further illustration of this tendency in Chile is offered by the report of the minister of public instruction, presented to the National Congress in 1908, which gives a summary view of the condition of state education in Chile from the primary grades to the university. This order of arrangement-beginning with the lower grades and proceeding to the higher-which in itself is significant of a change of view in recent years, is followed in the present abstract.

To render his review of state-supported instruction complete, the minister remarks, it is necessary to refer to those institutions which have received subventions from the state as well as those which were founded by and are entirely supported by it.

Private instruction is powerfully aided by the annual appropriations for the different secondary schools (liceos and colegios), which have been increasing year by year until the sum amounted to $87,235 in 1907. The mean attendance at these schools for that year was 3,957, which makes the subvention $22.04 for each student. In like manner the subvention for private primary schools rose in ten years from $49,490 in 1898 to $232,286 in 1907. These private schools had an average attendance of 13,898 children of both sexes during the latter year, making $16.71 for each pupil. Private schools are also assisted

by the State through the gratuitous distribution of text-books and paper. The minister adds that although it is well for the treasury to be open-handed in its assistance to private schools in a country where there is so much illiteracy as there is in Chile, still two considerations must be kept in view-one, that this assistance should not be so prodigal as to impede the development of the public or state schools, which have a much broader plan of studies than the private institutions, and the second, that the Government should not grant this assistance without careful examination, because, while there are schools and societies worthy of all credit, there are others, unfortunately, which do not faithfully perform their duties to the heads of families.

To insure the proper performance of their functions, the Government at the close of 1907 obtained a grant of $109,500 as a subsidy to be paid to the pupils (at the rate of $7.30 a year each) of such private schools as would comply with the conditions contained in an ordinance which the Government issued at the same time. Among these conditions were provisions that the hygienic surroundings of the schools must be good; that the teachers must have diplomas from the normal schools, or have bachelors' degrees in the humanities, or pass examinations; that reading, writing, elementary arithmetic, geography, and history of Chile be taught; that the schools should be in operation at least one hundred and fifty days in the year, and that they should be subject to inspection by the regular inspector of the public schools.

A table showing the growth of the state primary schools from 1891 to 1907 shows that in the latter year there were 2,319 such schools, with 3,997 teachers, an enrollment of 197,174, and a mean attendance of 121,176, or 61.4 per cent of the enrollment. The number of teachers in 1907 who were graduates from a normal school was 1,415, against 2,582 who were not "normalists," wherefore the Government determined to stimulate the zeal of those teachers who have not had a normal course by giving them facilities to study in a pedagogical seminary, and to that end issued an ordinance providing for the examination of such teachers at a normal school before an examining board for the purpose of granting diplomas as qualified teachers. The subjects prescribed for examination include methodology and manual training, with the usual subjects of study of primary schools.

Promotions in the public school service, as in all branches of the Government, should be based solely upon merit and not be due to favor. Only those normal teachers, therefore, should be appointed directors of superior schools who are proved to be worthy of the trust by their intelligence and high character and their experience in teaching.

Appointments to these places were, accordingly, made subject to competitive examination by a decree of May 25, 1908, which provides minutely for the conduct of such examinations before an examining board at some one of the state normal schools.

In recent years manual training has developed to a considerable extent in the public schools of Chile, the first 10 carpenter shops having been established in 1899, while in 1907 there were 29 carpenter shops, with 908 pupils working in them; 40 shops for working in pasteboard, with 1,270 pupils; and 51 shops for needlework, with 5,100 girls at work in them.

The Swiss method of instruction has been followed in these schools, with the view of cultivating the natural aptitude of the pupils, but a more practical end will be observed in future and the instruction will be correspondingly modified and the number of shops greatly increased. Especially is this practical object to be kept in view in the superior schools, where the pupils will be taught mechanical trades, so that they can enter into business readily.

In 1908 there were 15 normal schools for the training of teachers in Chile, 6 for men and 9 for women, and a new normal school for women was established that year in the Province of Malleco.

The following table gives the statistics of normal schools for 1907:

The Government is so sensible of the importance of the normal schools that a special decree was published under date of April 27, 1908, with reference to the appointment of teachers, in accordance wherewith "normalists" (1. e., graduates of a normal school) who have completed the course of the Pedagogical Institute and those who have studied at the Institute of Physical and Manual Training are to be preferred as teachers in normal schools, and if such candidates are not available, then those who have diplomas as teachers in normal schools or university graduates will be accepted, thus precluding the possibility of filling the positions with unqualified persons.

The plan of studies of these schools has also been modified, more reliance being placed upon the study of text-books and works of reference than heretofore when the students were accustomed to make notes of the lectures of the professors. The list of works includes the names of several French and German authors (Compayré, Schuffe, Schutzer).

Commercial education in Chile, so far as it has developed, is a growth of recent years. A list of nine commercial institutes in as many cities is given, with an average attendance of 934 students in 1907. By a decree of May 26, 1908, the following industrial course of study was prescribed for the technical commercial institute of Iquique, which prepares its students to be employees of the Government and analysts and technical experts for the saltpeter industry: English, German (elective), wood and iron working, industrial chemistry, machines and motors, electricity, and drawing-the last four subjects being studied practically in the laboratory and shops.

Secondary education.-The law of January 9, 1879, provides that there shall be at least one establishment of secondary instruction in each province; that is to say, that there should be one liceo for young men in each of the twentythree provincial capitals. Many other liceos have since been created in different cities, until in 1907 there were 39 in the whole country, with an enrollment of 9,302 and an average attendance of 7,896; there are, besides, 31 liceos for young women, supported by the State, with an enrollment of 4,810 and an average attendance of 3,839. The courses of study in these liceos are designated in the tables as "preparatory" and the "humanities," the latter being the usual secondary course, to which the new studies of civics, psychology, philosophy of the sciences, and general history of civilization were to be added. The average attendance on the course of the humanities was 4,555 young men and 1,779 young women in 1908.