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16. parum. . instructis, those which were unsound in their bolts, timbers, or rigging.'

19. quibus iniuriis. See Bell. Gall. 1. 12, note 5.

21. turres vineasque. The 'vineae' were wooden galleries with arched roofs, made stone-proof, under cover of which the wall might be undermined. The 'turres' were wooden erections, moved forward on rollers, working a battering-ram on their lowest story, and with floorings above whence missiles could be thrown.

22. Arelate. As 'Armorica' is the same etymologically as the Latin ' ad mare,' 'the country near the sea,' so Arelate is ad lutum,' 'the town near the marsh' (Zeuss, p. 15; Gluck, p. 115); Arles being situated just at the head of the Rhone delta. So Paris was called Loukotokia' ('the lake-town') from being at the confluence of the Seine and Marne. 'Arelate' is an ablative, like' Praeneste.'

26. c. 37. C. Fabium. This legatus' is only slightly mentioned in the Bell. Gall. (5. 53, 54). and confined to the humblest duties. Now, however, he does good service.

29. saltus Pyrenaeos. The main passes, as now used, are marked in the map. The great Roman road, opened by Pompeius himself, was the one leading from Perpignan to Tarragona, and thence south to Tortosa, and west to Lerida. But, as Bertrand, Voies Rom. p. 31, remarks, there were probably other roads; and it is improbable that those by Campredon and Urgel were unknown. They were probably the main roads before Pompeius opened his; just as the M. Genèvre pass of the Alps was the chief one before Cottius opened the M. Cenis in Augustus' time.

32. ex saltu deiecit, 'drove the defenders from the pass,' which was, according to Gen. von Göler, that on the Puycerda and Urgel road, leading directly down on the Segre: which is, he remarks, narrow and stony at first, but has the advantage of being much shorter. And in this view he must be right, as it is evident, from the way in which Fabius' position is described in c. 40, that he did not come from Manresa or Tarragona. In saying that, after clearing the passes, Fabius advanced by forced marches towards Afranius, Caesar has neglected to tell us at what point he was joined by the other legions from behind, which we find him commanding (Caesar being still absent) in c. 40.

21. 2. c. 38. Afranius had served against Sertorius under Pompeius. Petreius was well known as the conqueror of Catiline.

3. [M. Terentius] Va ro, the arch-critic and littérateur of Rome, was only slightly attached to the aristocratic side, and glad to take the obscure part assigned to him in the campaign.

Hispaniam citeriorem. This had been bounded by the Ebro, but was now extended to Castulo on the edge of the Sierra Morena. This place is still called Cazlona, and has many Roman remains.

4. The saltus Castulonensis is the Sierra di Cazorla at the east of the Morena.

ad Anam, to the Guadiana' (Wady Ana,' as it was called by the Moors).

5. Vettonum. The Vettones occupied the modern Estremadura. Their name occurs curiously in our own language: the plant betony' being in Latin 'herba Vettonica.' Their capital was Salmantica, now Salamanca.

II. Celtiberia, that is, Arragon, where the immigrating Celts had mixed with the old Iberian or Basque populations; accordingly in this country we have Basque names, such as Calagurris, Turia, Bilbilis, Iberus, mingling with the well-known Celtic forms Segobriga, Mertobrigà, Durius.

Cantabris; the Asturians.

14. propter. . loci opportunitatem. Lerida commands all the three roads marked in the map, as those of Urgel and Campredon meet near it, and the road from thence to Tarragona communicates with the third. Moreover, if Caesar could be hindered from debouching into the plains west of the Cinca, he would have serious difficulty either in feeding or employing his immense body of cavalry, while his opponents would have the great plains just behind them.

18. c. 39. cetratae. See c. 48, note 7.

22. quam ipse pacaverat. That is, from the Belgian confederacy, the Treviri and others, defeated by Caesar.

nominatim .. evocato; 'collected by summoning expressly the most skilful warriors from each of the states; and in addition many of a most admirable class of men, partly Aquitanians, partly mountaineers, from (the Cevennes at) the edge of the province.' If the reading is correct, multis' must be understood. But the whole chapter is much suspected to be not genuine, and interpolated to make up for the loss of a chapter which would have given clearer details of the rendezvouz of Caesar's forces. It was most unlikely that Pompeius would come by way of Mauritania; he would not prefer a march of 700 miles through the Atlas, the country of Bocchus, Caesar's ally, to a voyage which

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1 It was said that Charles of Anjou believed that the crusade of St. Louis might march with advantage from Tunis to Egypt: but a Roman general was not so ignorant of geography.

might land him close to the scene of action, at Tarragona. Nor could Caesar have thought so; else he would not have thought of continuing the campaign with only troops enough to cope with those of Afranius and Petreius. Lastly, was the time when the whole treasury of Rome and Italy was at Caesar's command, one at which he would have used the petty means of supply recorded in this chapter? The last sentences seem genuine; but as if they belonged to some other place.

33. c. 40. pontes. These bridges were both over the Segre, below the junction with the Noguera; and placed, doubtless, so as to keep open the communication with the Urgel road.

22. 2. quae citra flumen fuerant. This passage, as remarked in c. 37, note 3, indicates that Fabius had come down by a road whose main course was west of the Segre.

·

6. egressae pabulatoribus praesidio, ' to act as a covering party to the foragers spread in that direction.'

10. aggere atque cratibus.

Hurdles were used to make the roadway of the bridge, and on these turf was probably laid, as on the floating mole at Brindisi.

12. coniunctum, 'quite close to Lerida and to his camp.'

15. necessaria re coactus, ' compelled by the extremity in which he found himself.'

16. aciem in duas partes, formed his line to the front and rear.' A somewhat similar phrase is (Bell. Gall. 1. 25), 'conversa signa bipartito intulerunt.' See, however, the note on that passage.

25. c. 41. eo biduo, ' within two days of that time.' We have a similar ablative in Bell. Gall. 3. 23, ‘paucis diebus quibus eo ventum erat.' See the note at the place.

sibi praesidio reliquerat, · had kept as a personal escort.'

33. in medio colle, half-way up the hill.' This gave a great advantage to his javelins; those of Caesar would be almost ineffective when cast upwards, except at the shortest range.

23. 1. per Afranium stare quominus, that the refusal of battle came from Afranius.' On 'quominus,' see Bell. Gall. 1. 31, note 9.

3. castra facere constituit. This was a master-stroke of generalship, both in plan and execution; indicating, however, and contributing to increase a contempt for the enemy which nearly led to bad consequences. The moment this camp was finished, it made it almost impossible for the Pompeians, under ordinary circumstances, to make any movement northward in the plains, as the danger of exposing their flank in so doing would be extreme.

7. pedum quindecim: fifteen feet wide, not deep: the labour of

throwing up earth, by three ranks of workmen, to such a height, is more than could be supplied; and, moreover, it would have no object.

15. c. 42. longius erat agger petendus, turf would have had to be fetched from too great a distance' (if a wall had been raised at once).

similem rationem operis instituit, he carried on the works on the same plan as on the day before.'

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22. munitione fossae, on the strength of the ditch as a defence.' So sic muniebatur,' in Bell. Gall. 1. 38, means 'was so strong;' see the note at the place.

29. c. 43. tumulus.. paulo editior. Caesar now tries a stratagem, like that by which he had brought Ariovistus to bay (Bell. Gall. 1. 50, note 2), that is, he tried to occupy a second post in the rear of their camp; so as to make it impossible for them to move freely or get up convoys from the South.

24. 1. antesignanos. These were troops of élite, about 200 to every legion, who seem to have been placed so as to cover the intervals of the cohorts, and protect the standards, in case of an advance. The three lines of the legion itself were called the subsignani;' the allies in the rear the 'postsignani.' We may assume that the rush was made by the right of Petreius' camp; as he was probably close to the Segre, and a little in advance of the bridge at Lerida. (See below, c. 57, note 1.) 2. in statione, 'which were on the mainguard.' This name is applied to any of the regular guards posted about the camp.

3. Afranii cohortes. Sir W. Napier compares this rush from both sides with the struggle which gave the British troops possession of one of the Hermanito heights, and the French of the other, just before the battle of Salamanca in 1812. The French,' he says (iv. p. 263) 'seeing the caçadores approaching, broke their own ranks, and, running to the encounter, gained the first Hermanito and kept it, but were repulsed from the second.'

8. c. 44. magno impetu primo procurrerent. Sir W. Napier, in the last paper he ever dictated, speaks of his own practice. I told my men off in numbers, 1, 2, 3, &c., and practised them suddenly to run back or advance, in the most confused mobbish manner. . . My command would be, "Soldiers, do you see the enemy's skirmishers advancing to that hedge, ditch, bank, rocks, or whatever the cover might be?" "Yes." Well, forward at speed and line that hedge," &c. In one instant the race fired them; they used to dash furiously forward, even on parade; and in battle generally gained the ground first.'

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11. non turpe existimarent; whereas the Romans, like our own

troops, knew well that, as Sir C. Campbell said at the battle of the Alma, It would be better, Sir, that all those Guards were lying dead on the hill-side, rather than that they should fail back to re-form.' Any offensive movement of the enemy, made at such a moment, would be fatal both to the regiment and to the line of battle of which it forms part.

12. genere eodem. . assuefacti. The ablative is frequent after this verb, as in Bell. Gall. 4. 1, nullo officio aut disciplina assuefacti.'

13. quibus quisque in locis, 'that whenever soldiers have got accustomed to any place, they fall very much into the military ways current there.' So it has been recently said, that the desultory warfare of Algiers had weakened the steadiness of the French army for regular campaigning. 16. ab aperto latere, 'they thought that they were being outflanked on their right by the rush of scattered men.'

18. eum locum quem ceperant. Even a movement of fifty yards to the rear (when the enemy has got the range too accurately) may shake the morale of a regiment (Decker, Three Arms, p. 17).

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20. in eo cornu, on the right wing;' as it was from this flank that the rush had been made for the high ground.

21. atque.. sese recepit, but fell back to the nearest eminence.' So in Bell. Gall. 3. 19, ut ne unum quidem impetum nostrorum ferrent ac statim terga verterent;' where, in like manner, the adversative conjunction is required in English.

22. c. 45. paene omni acie perterrita. They discovered, to their surprise, that their enemies could stand against them. In the next clause the word 'res' seems to have been omitted, because the check had occurred contrary to expectation and precedent.'

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27. dum sarcire. . volunt, and wishing to make up for the damage received.' So Horace, in Ep. 1. 7, expresses the participle, wishing to find a joke,' by

Sibi dum requiem dum risus undique quaerit.'

32. utraque ex parte directus, 'very steep on both sides.' The width of the neck leading up to the town must have been about 1600 feet; as the three cohorts, formed three deep, would have had a front of about 500 men; and each soldier stood about a yard from the next on each side.

25. 3. tenui fastigio vergebat, 'down to this point the ground sloped gently from the city for about 400 paces.'

4. eo.. studio, by the impulse just mentioned.'

8. nitebantur, 'they held their ground by spirit and endurance; and bore all kinds of rough handling.'