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THURSDAY, JUNE 21, 1906.

BRITISH INLAND NAVIGATION. Our Waterways. A History of Inland Navigation considered as a Branch of Water Conservancy. By Urquhart A. Forbes and W. H. R. Ashford. Pp. xv+336. (London: John Murray, 1906.) Price

125. net.

I was originally intended to deal in this volume with the whole subject of water conservancy, which has been defined as "the scientific treatment and regulation of all the water received in these islands, from its first arrival in the form of dew or rain till its final disappearance in the ocean," tracing the evolution and subsequent history of the various branches of water conservancy, which, in addition to inland navigation, comprise fisheries, water-supply, the mitigation of floods, and the prevention of river pollution. Owing, however, to the greatly increased interest displayed in the improvement and utilisation of our inland waterways, this subject has been given precedence of the other branches, and forms the main purport of this book, though the other branches are occasionally referred to.

The appearance of the volume is in any case very opportune, for it has approximately coincided with the appointment of a Royal Commission to inquire into the condition of the inland waterways of the United Kingdom, and to investigate whether it might be possible to devise some scheme by which inland navigation in the British Isles, so long neglected, may be revived and improved, so as to serve profitably for the conveyance of bulky goods, and thereby reduce the cost of carriage, and thus place British manufacturers in a more favourable condition for competing with their foreign rivals, and especially with those for whom a paternal Government has provided the facilities of free and commodious inland waterways.

After a short introductory chapter on "The Objects of Water Conservancy," the rainfall, drainage areas, and principal rivers of the British Isles are referred to in a chapter on "The Water System of the United Kingdom," and certain important changes noted; whilst in the next chapter the legal aspects of water conservancy are dealt with. The authors trace three distinct periods in the history of the navigation of our waterways, namely, the first period, dating from rarly times up to near the close of the sixteenth century, when the rivers were used for navigation in their natural condition, as described in a chapter on the "Natural Waterways" of England; a second period, from the close of the sixteenth century to the commencement of the Bridgewater Canal in 1759, inaugurating the canal system in England, during which time inland navigation on the rivers was improved and extended by deepening their channels, of which some account is given in chapter v.; and, lastly, the canal era, dating from the construction of the Bridgewater Canal, which, after a chapter on ancient and early British canals, is dealt with in two chapters in regard to England and Wales. A

chapter on "The Conservancy of Rivers in England and Wales since the Eighteenth Century" brings the history of English rivers down to the present time; whilst another chapter, on "Rivers and Canals in Ireland and Scotland," where the development of inland waterways was only commenced in the eighteenth century, completes the sketch of river and canal navigations in the United Kingdom. In chapter xi. the decline of inland navigation in the face of railway competition, and by the purchase of important links by the railway companies, is referred to, and statistics as to the total length of canals in the United Kingdom, their traffic and revenues are given; whilst the various causes which have contributed to the very depressed condition of the great majority of the canal companies are explained.

Though the book contains, as indicated by the preceding summary, a considerable amount of information as to the rise, progress, and present condition of the inland waterways of the United Kingdom, as well as the legislative enactments controlling them, which Mr. Forbes, as a barrister, is specially qualified to deal with, the most interesting subject at the present time is undoubtedly the one considered in the last chapter, namely, "The Resuscitation of Our Waterways, of Our Waterways," to which the previous portion of the book has gradually led up. In dealing, however, with this subject, it is important to draw a very definite distinction between the inland waterways with which the authors are concerned and the maritime waterways of the United Kingdom, such as the tidal estuaries and rivers and the Manchester Ship Canal, which, though referred to amongst inland waterways, are quite outside the scope of the book, and are in no need of resuscitation. The flourishing sea-going trade of Great Britain is, indeed, due to her maritime waterways, many of which have been greatly improved to keep pace with the growth of traffic and the increasing draught of large vessels; whilst the Manchester Ship Canal, though proceeding inland, and having unfavourably affected schemes for the development of inland waterways by its unsatisfactory financial results, is essentially a maritime waterway, and has proved of great value to the sea-going trade of the district by converting the inland city of Manchester into a seaport, independent of Liverpool and the railways.

Whereas, however, the United Kingdom, with its very extensive coast-line and numerous important tidal rivers, is exceptionally well fitted by nature for maritime trade, its restricted area and small riverbasins, resulting in small rivers above their tidal limit, separated by high water-partings in proportion to the moderate distance between them requiring to be surmounted by a canal, place this country at a serious disadvantage in regard to inland navigation as compared with the continent of Europe, with its very extensive river-basins draining into large rivers flowing for long distances over comparatively level plains, and capable in some cases of being joined across their water-parting by a canal of requisite size, without having to rise to a considerable elevation, and at a reasonable cost. In spite, nevertheless,

of these manifest disadvantages, there is no doubt that the inland waterways of England have been unduly allowed to fall into decay, owing to a surrender in several cases to the railways, the absence of concerted effort to procure uniformity of dimensions in through routes and to effect amalgamations, and the neglect of improvements. Those inland waterways which are under a single control, which possess the requisite traffic in bulky goods, and have been enlarged and improved to provide for the growth of traffic, such as the Aire and Calder Navigation with its coal trade, and the Weaver Navigation with its salt trade, have been able to maintain a very successful| competition with the railways; and where waterways connect large centres of commerce and there is a large trade in bulky goods, the old, inadequate waterways have been able to retain a considerable traffic, as exemplified by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, and the canals clustering round Birmingham and from the Potteries. A careful study of the statistics of Continental waterways proves that, notwithstanding the natural advantages they possess, and the uniformity in size and improvements which have been provided, only those waterways obtain a large traffic which deal with bulky goods and traverse long distances with merely moderate alterations in level.

The value of inland waterways in offering an alternative route to railways for bulky goods, and thus tending to reduce railway rates, as well as relieving railways from being overburdened by the least remunerative portion of their traffic, is obvious; but the points requiring solution are, from what source the funds can be provided for putting the principal waterways in a position to compete with the railways for the conveyance of bulky goods, and what waterways afford a good prospect of a reasonable return on the capital expended in their requisite improvement. The authors, in their final chapter on "The Resuscitation of Our Waterways," after directing attention to the interest aroused in recent years in inland navigation, the steps which have been taken for amalgamating some of the canal companies, the lesser cost of transport and maintenance in the case of canals than with railways, and the possibility of discharging goods at any places on the banks of a canal, indicate three methods by which the necessary improvements, unification of dimensions, amalgamation, and control of inland waterways, might be effected.

The first method is the conferring of additional powers on the Board of Trade to supervise the improvement and development of those waterways which have opportunities of trade in bulky goods, the necessary funds being lent them by Parliament or by local authorities. The second method is "the establishment of a canal trust to acquire, develop, extend, and administer, in the public interest, canals and navigations in England and Wales," which would be empowered to raise the requisite funds by the issue of guaranteed canal stock. The third method is "the nationalisation of waterways" by the purchase of the canals by the Government with funds

raised by a loan with this object, which the authors consider is the best method, and one which would speedily repay the cost "by doubling our means of communication" and "by the immense incentive given to commercial enterprise." Unfortunately, this is a very optimistic view of the results of the purchase and improvement of our inland waterways by the Government, and not at all likely to be realised, for their total length in England and Wales is only about a fifth of the length of the railways; and only a few of these waterways could be improved with any prospect of a remunerative expenditure. Considering that many of the French canals have a traffic which could hardly pay the working expenses, as is the case with the Caledonian Canal, which belongs to the Government, it is evident that the purchase and improvement of the English canals as a whole would be a financial mistake; but the connection of Birmingham with a seaport by an adequate waterway, the improvement of some of the antiquated canals in its neighbourhood, and the development of some through routes might be effected with good prospects of satisfactory commercial and financial results.

RECENT BOTANICAL BOOKS.

(1) Alien Flora of Britain. By S. T. Dunn. Pp. xvi+ 208. (London: West, Newman and Co., 1905.) Price 5s. net.

(2) The Aconites of India. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, vol. x., part ii. By Dr. Otto Stapf. Pp. ii+115-197; with 25 plates. (CalPrice cutta Bengal Secretarial Press, 1905.) il. IS.

(3) An Enumeration of the Vascular Plants from Surinam. By Dr. A. Pulle. Pp. 555. (Leyden : E. J. Brill, Ltd., 1906.) Price 158.

(4) Die europäischen Laubmoose. By Georg Roth. Pp. xxviii+1331. 2 vols. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1903-1905.)

(1)

IT has been pertinently remarked that the British cannot altogether escape the designation of aliens in view of the continual influx of foreigners, whether peacefully or formerly as invaders, but in such cases the descendants are eventually regarded as natives. Plants cannot, at any rate within historic times according to the author of this book, pass from the class of aliens to the class of natives. This is an exclusive view, but from a scientific aspect logical and correct. It is a difficult matter to establish a test for the validity of native species, especially in an insular country that has been extensively cultivated and the inhabitants of which have been the foremost voyagers in the world. The criteria adopted by the author depend mainly upon a consideration of the distribution of each species in Great Britain and adjacent countries. This applies especially to plants that are generally recorded as weeds from artificial habitats, but which may nevertheless be truly indigenous; the author distinguishes a considerable number of these that are readily noted, since their descriptions are placed within brackets. A

noticeable genus is Ribes, for which the author favours the inclusion amongst natives of the species alpinum, grossularia, nigrum, and rubrum. The compilation of this group has demanded much thought, and whether one agrees or disagrees with the discrimination, it is an extremely valuable expression of opinion, and affords the opportunity to those interested to place on record any apparently natural localities for these species. Less interesting, but forming an integral part of the subject, are the more obvious aliens, including introductions, casuals, and what may be termed drifts. The book fully bears out the expectations that were formed of its original and critical character, and to the author's wife due credit must be given for enabling the book to take shape when the pressure of official duties seemed likely to delay its publication.

(2) The early attempts to classify the Indian aconites were prompted by the desire to trace the source of the poisonous root known as Nepal aconite or Bikh. In 1802, when the East India Company decided to send a mission to Nepal, Dr. F. Hamilton was deputed to join the expedition in a scientific capacity, and he endeavoured without success to identify Bikh. After him Wallich took up the collection of Nepal aconites, but, unfortunately, his plants assigned to Aconitum ferox were not the source of Bikh, although such was assumed. The confusion so originated was increased when, later on, the same scientific name was applied to different plants from Kumaon and Garwhal, and these and other misnomers have continued to the present day. To Sir George Watt much credit is due for attempting to clear up the nomenclature. In touring through the localities mentioned he spared no pains to collect plants and to ascertain their vernacular names with any general information, and this has materially helped Dr. Stapf in preparing the present monograph. Most of the species fall into

sections Lycoctonum, containing perennials, and Napellus, containing biennials. The latter is the important group including Aconitum spicatum, the true Bikh, and the allied Nepal species, Aconitum laciniatum, termed Bikhoma, also Aconitum heterophyllum, which contains a bitter but non-poisonous substance, atisine, and a similar species, Aconitum palmatum. Dr. Stapf decides against the occurrence of Aconitum napellus in India, the nearest congener being the poisonous species Aconitum soongaricum, of which the properties are unknown. In addition to the task of discriminating between the names ascribed to herbarium specimens and establishing the identity of vernacular designations, Dr. Stapf works out a classification based upon the anatomical structure of the roots. For the biennial species he distinguishes three types of root, the first, normal, showing one continuous ring of cambium; in the second the cambium is separated into several portions, and the bundles appear as star-shaped masses embedded in uniform tissue; the third is characterised by cambium bands having a circular or horseshoe-shaped cross-section.

(3) The colony of Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, has

been visited by a large number of plant-collectors, of whom the most important, all about the middle of the last century, were Hostmann, Kappler, Focke, Splitberger, and Kegel, and quite recently Went and the author. A considerable number of the plants sent to Europe by the earlier collectors had been previously worked out, and a list of some fifty papers dealing with the classification of selected portions from different collections is given under the literature; but this is the first attempt to prepare a complete list of the vascular plants. The author has discovered twelve new species, including two in Podostemaceæ, two in Melastomaceæ, one in Loranthaceæ, and a Vanilla.. Looking through the orders, the Leguminosæ are the most abundant, then the Orchidaceæ, Gramineæ, and Melastomaceæ in descending order. The Malpighiaceæ, Sapindaceæ, and Guttiferæ are proportionately well represented, and among the ferns Polypodiaceæ and Hymenophyllaceæ. Some of the more important genera are Miconia, Ipomoea, Piper, Peperomia, Inga, Schizæa, Vanilla, and the tropical American genus Dichæa. A tabulated comparison is made with the floras of British Guiana, French Guiana, and the Amazon district, showing that about 60 per cent. of the plants of Surinam occur in each of these regions, and that about 14 per cent. are endemic.

In the phytogeographical survey reference is made to a typical mangrove vegetation found in the river estuaries that gives place to a littoral alluvial belt. The vegetation of the river banks is extremely rich, mention being made of the araceous Montrichardia arborescens, Pachira aquatica, and Cacoucia coccinea.. Further inland there are plains on higher ground called savannahs, but differing from the true. savannahs or from the campos of Brazil, where sedges, grasses, species of Schizæa, Eriocaulaceæ, and Melastomaceæ are abundant. In the primitive forest Selaginellas and hymenophyllaceous ferns find a suitable habitat, while Tecoma leucoxylon, Mimusops Balata, Eriodendron anfractuosum, and certain Lecythidaceæ are amongst the important trees.

In addition, a list of vernacular names is given, and a few illustrations of typical plant formations that are excellent; also figures of the new species are provided and a map of the country. As Dr. Pulle has been at considerable pains to consult the principal collections in Holland and elsewhere, the enumeration is complete, and the volume forms a valuable contribution to the botany of tropical South America.

(4) To bryologists in this country Lindberg's system, in which the cleistocarpous mosses are incorporated with stegocarpous forms, is the most familiar, as Braithwaite and Dixon have both followed this arrangement. On the Continent, Brotherus has also adopted Lindberg's system in his classification of the mosses in the Naturliche Pflanzenfamilien." Mr. Roth has preferred to conform more closely to Schimper's grouping, and in this respect and others his classification is very similar to that of Limpricht in "Rabenhorst's Kryptogamenflora." He retains a large number of independent genera

instead of uniting several as subgenera under one main genus, here again differing from English authorities. A good instance is afforded by a comparison of the species united under Weisia by Dixon with the same species that are referred by Roth to seven different genera; and two of these are quite separated from the others, as they fall under the Cleistocarpi. In his treatment of the Hypnaceæ, to which family one naturally turns, Roth also differs considerably from Schimper. Dixon collects ten of Schimper's genera under his genus Hypnum, but specifies five of them as subgenera. Roth has twelve equivalent genera, but again four genera are placed in a different family, and unnecessarily, although not without reason, the genus or subgenus Harpidium is changed to Drepanocladus. This is one of the names which, it is hoped, will be sustained when the nomenclature of the cryptogams is discussed at the next International Botanical Congress.

The points of difference between this work and Dixon and Braithwaite's books are so numerous that British moss-workers will refer to the "Europäischen Laubmoose "for contrast rather than for comparison. As a practical handbook for naming mosses the work deserves much commendation, and bears ample evidence that the writer has definite opinions to express. It is a great pity that analytical tables for distinguishing genera are not given, but the descriptions are good, and important characters are thrown into bolder type. References to the most recent discoveries of new localities and new varieties will be found. The illustrations are very numerous, but poor in execution.

PHOTOGRAPHY IN SURVEYING OPERATIONS.

An Elementary Treatise on Phototopographic Methods and Instruments. By J. A. Flemer. Pp. xix+438. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1906.) Price

21S. net.

THE

THE assistance that photography can render in the laborious work connected with topographical surveys has been repeatedly insisted upon, and the recognition of the fact is being displayed in the construction of a class of instruments admirably adapted for use in the field. With the more convenient instruments that experience will suggest, and with the shortened methods that familiarity will supply, the employment of photography is likely to be still more general, though doubtless it will have to contend against a certain amount of prejudice in favour of older methods.

Mr. Flemer's book is intended to overcome these prejudices and to determine the exact field which the camera can usefully occupy in surveying operations. The method has its limitations. The accuracy of a map constructed from panoramic views must evidently depend upon the precision with which objects can be identified and measured on a photograph or its enlargement. The use of telephoto-lenses or longfocused cameras would increase the accuracy, but at

the expense of convenience. More numerous photographs taken at shorter distances would also have the same effect, but then the labour of collecting and reducing the material would approach that due to the ordinary methods. It is the object of such a book as this to show that photography has distinct advantages peculiar to itself. But in many directions in which extreme accuracy is unnecessary, perspective views can be of essential service. A series of panc ramic pictures showing the alteration in the face of the country due to volcanic eruptions, or the recurrent changes in sand dunes caused by winds blowing from certain directions at regular intervals, seem to be peculiarly suitable inquiries for photographic methods. Similarly, the changes in glacier formation and the determination of their motion, alterations in coast-line due to erosion, or the location of rocks and buoys would suggest other applications for the process. In wars and manoeuvres, either with or without the use of balloons, the process has a large field of application.

Since the translation of a perspective view or combination of views into maps possessing considerable accuracy of detail is likely to concern many other professions than that of a surveyor, properly so called, it is most desirable to have a treatise in which is set out clearly the methods of construction and of the principles underlying the practice of the process. This want Mr. Flemer's book is intended to supply. That the author is competent to deal with the subject practically we entertain no doubt, but whether he has been successful in conveying his knowledge to others it is very difficult to judge. Surveying is technical work that can hardly be learnt without actual experiment in the field under the eye of a trained teacher. What amount of preliminary information is a pupil supposed to have before tackling the problems the author introduces? Certainly one ought to be accustomed to the use of the plane table and the time-honoured methods of procedure before addressing himself to the study of perspective views. The method should be regarded, not as a substitute, but as an addition, to the recognised processes.

Mr. Flemer's book consists practically of three parts. After a short preliminary historic review to show how the principles have been welcomed in various countries, the author discusses the phototopographic methods that various authorities have recommended. The fact that we have so many varieties of detail shows that the subject has not yet taken that mechanical, stereotyped form which it may be expected to assume when fully developed. The second part opens with a chapter on lenses, which seems hardly necessary to introduce the description of the many photogrammetric instruments now in use. This latter is a really valuable and excellent section. Finally, we have the details of the photographic operations, including the development of the plates and prints. There is not much that is new that can be said here, and the treatment of pinhole photography which is naturally connected with this subject is unfortunately discussed in another place.

W. E. P.