THE fourth part of vol. xxvi. of Notes from the Leyden Museum is devoted to invertebrates, more especially crustaceans and insects, Dr. van der Weele contributing three papers on Neuroptera, Mr. C. Ritzema one on a new Sumatran beetle, while Dr. de Man discusses and figures certain crustaceans of the genus Palæmon.

HUNTED for four months in the year over a great part of England, and almost everywhere shot and trapped on every possible occasion, the otter, observes Mr. J. C. Tregarthen in a delightful article in the June number of the Monthly Review, yet manages to survive in the British Isles in a manner and in numbers which are truly surprising. The fox, were he not rigorously protected, would disappear from the greater part of England in a very few years, and yet the otter, without the aid of any protection and despite unremitting persecution, continues to flourish in our midst, and this, too, in face of the fact that the female breeds only once a year, and then gives birth to but three or four cubs. The fact that he is here to-day and gone to-morrow-maybe a score of miles away-is, in the author's opinion, the reason of the otter's success in life. It will be news to many of our readers that there are no less than twenty packs of otter-hounds in England and Wales; and now that most of the "methods of barbarism" have been abolished, the author enters a vigorous protest against the attempts of "grandmotherly legislation" to abolish an ancient and exciting sport.

EXTRACTS from two letters written by Mr. T. R. Bell in 1903 and 1904 from India concerning certain butterflies in that country form the most generally interesting portion of the contents of the June number of the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine. Special stress is laid by the writer on dimorphism in these insects due to the time of year at which they were developed, the dry-season imagos, owing to what may be described as practical starvation, differing in many cases very markedly from the well-fed wet-season forms. On such differences several nominal species have been founded. Very noteworthy is the fact that in species of the same genus the differences between the dry and the wet forms frequently take quite different lines. "Ocellation" on the under-side of the wings appears, however, to be a distinct character of the wet forms. In breeding certain butterflies, such as some of the "blues," at Kanara it was noticed that males and females came out in equal numbers, whereas in a state of nature the latter are scarcely ever seen, or if observed are found in thick underwood, while the males bask in the open sunshine.

THE Museums Journal for May contains the report on the discussion following the papers on the relation of provincial museums to national institutions read at the Museums Association Conference at Worcester last year. The points for discussion ranged themselves under two main headings: (1) that museums should be taken over by Government, and "run" practically without local assistance; and (2) that all important specimens should go to a national collection. The first proposition met with a direct traverse in one of the papers read, the author of which urged that museums get on much better in proportion as they are independent of Government aid. As regards the second point, which, in the case of zoological museums, related mainly to type-specimens, the question was raised as to the proper places of deposition for such specimens. Should, for example, Indian types go to Calcutta and American to New York, or, on the other hand, should types described in England be placed in the

British Museum and those named in America be transferred to New York or Chicago, and so on? Incidentally, it was mentioned that if a national collection received such a valuable augmentation it ought to do something in return, and it was accordingly suggested that the British Museum should start a zoological loan collection. No definite motion was agreed to on any one of these points.

A NEW Salamander from North Carolina, remarkable for its brick-red legs, which contrast with the leaden hue of the body, is described in No. 1457 of the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum by Dr. Stejneger under the name of Plethodon shermani. New crickets and leafwinged grasshoppers, or katydids," from Costa Rica form the subject of No. 1459 of the same serial, the author being Mr. J. A. G. Rehn. A species of Mimetica has the

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FIG. 1.-Mimetica crenulata, lateral view of type.

tegmina," or front wings, of the usual dried-leaf type, and of a form which defies description, although well shown in the accompanying illustration. In part 1458 of the same serial Mr. C. D. Walcott resumes his account of the Cambrian faunas of China, basing his observations on new material. It is anticipated that a fully illustrated report on the subject will be published before the close of the present year.

THE June number of the Popular Science Monthly contains several articles of great interest to biologists and geologists. Dr. D. S. Jordan has some suggestive observations on variation in animals and plants. He points out, for instance, that in many cases adaptive characters are older than non-adaptive, as exemplified by the fact that flying-fish flew before the differentiation of the existing genera. Mutation-or saltation, as he prefers to call itis regarded as only an extreme development of individual fluctuation, the author adding that "while saltation remains as one of the probable sources of specific difference, its actual relation to the process of species-forming in nature remains to be proved." Prof. Carl Eigenmann's article on the fresh-water fishes of South and Central ("Middle ") America is worthy of the best attention of all interested in zoological distribution. The leading features brought to notice are: (1) the variety of the fish-life in tropical South America; (2) the paucity of family-types contributing to this variety; (3) the poverty of the Central American fish-fauna and its essential South American character, except for (4) the isolation of the fauna of the Mexican plateau; (5) the poverty of the Pacific slope fish-fauna and its essentially Atlantic type; (6) the "marine" character of the fishes of Lake Titicaca; (7) the poverty of the Patagonian fauna and its essential distinctness from that of Brazil; and (8) the similarity between the fish-fauna of tropical America and that of tropical Africa. As regards the latter point, the author observes that "a land-connection, whether a land-bridge, intermediate continent, or land-wave, between the two continents is imperative. This land-connection must have existed before the origin of existing genera and before many of the existing families."

As a result of visiting several of the more important herbaria in Europe to study the genus Eupatorium and several allied genera, Mr. B. L. Robinson has published some notes on the Eupatorieæ in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xlii., No. 1. In addition to the diagnoses of new species of Eupatorium and other genera, the pamphlet contains revisions of the genera Piqueria and Ophryosporus, also a discussion of the genus Helogyne.

A SUGAR experiment station was instituted in Jamaica in April, 1904, under the direction of Mr. H. H. Cousins, for investigating problems in connection with the sugar and rum industries. The report for 1905 indicates what is being done in the matter of cultivation experiments to test different manures and varieties and to select new seedling canes. The advantage to be gained by taking new varieties into cultivation is well shown by the results obtained on the Albion Estate, where the Mt. Blanc variety generally grown produces less than any other variety tested, and furnishes less than half the saccharose yield per acre of the seedling B 379.

AN inquiry into the manufacture of Jamaica rums, by Mr. C. Allan, occurring in the above report, deals with fermentation changes, more especially those that give the quality to flavoured rums. It appears that the flavour is due mainly to the large amount and nature of the ethers formed. Premising that the characteristics of Jamaica rum are derived from saccharine liquors rich in albuminous matter fermented by yeasts and bacteria, in the case of the high-flavoured rums bacterial action is greatly increased and special bacteria are developed, producing acids that in combination with alcohol form aromatic ethers. It is suggested that higher alcohols, furfurol, and aldehydes may help to give body to the spirit.

In a paper read before the National Academy of Sciences,

U.S.A., on April 17, the distinguished seismologist Major C. E. Dutton discusses the possible relationhip between volcanic action and radio-activity. The theory brought forward is that, in limited tracts at depths of less than four miles, rocks are melted by heat due to radio-activity. As the melting proceeds, the water contained in the rocks becomes explosive and an eruption follows. When all the lava is exhausted the reservoir is closed. In due course more heat is generated, rocks are again melted, and a second eruption takes place. This explains, not only the repetitive character of eruptions, but the comparatively shallow depth at which they originate. The horizon of molten rock, if it is dependent on secular cooling of the world, would be at a depth of 30 miles or 40 miles, while if it is due to radio-activity it may possibly be found at a depth of three or four miles.

AN interesting supplement on modern air compressors, covering twenty pages with seventy-three illustrations, is published with the Engineer of June 15. It gives an excellent review of the great strides made during the last fifteen years in the use of compressed air. The development of the use of compressed air as a means for transmitting power appears the more remarkable when it is remembered that during the same period the use of electricity for that purpose has grown enormously.

THE Engineering Standards Committee has made arrangements with a firm at Bilston to manufacture commercial sets of standard pipe-flange templates in large quantities. The templates are made, with extreme

accuracy, of thin steel plate painted over with aluminium paint, a small piece being cut out at the extremity of each centre line so as to enable the fitter to see that the centre line of the template coincides with the centre line of his flange. The existence of these templates should enable full advantage to be taken of the standardisation that the committee has sought to effect.

In a note to the Rendiconti della R. Accademia dei Lincer (dated April 22 last) Dr. F. Eredia gives the monthly and yearly rainfall values obtained at the Collegio Romano for eighty-one years, 1825-1905. Observations were begun there in 1788, but their continuity and uniformity were not quite satisfactory prior to 1825. The annual mean for this long period is 31.8 inches. The wettest months are October to December; the maximum fall in any month was 147 inches, in November, 1878.

THE weather report issued by the Meteorological Office for the week ending Saturday, June 16, shows that the weather for the period was fine and dry generally. The sky was cloudy in the eastern and southern counties of England, and some rain fell in all districts. Thunderstorms occurred in various parts of England on June 12 and 16. Temperature was generally low for the time of year, and in the east of England the mean was 4° below the average. At Dumfries, in the west of Scotland, the thermometer rose to 83°, and in the east of Scotland and in the north-east of England it exceeded 80°. In the north of Scotland the range of temperature for the week amounted to 49°. The winds were mostly from between north and north-east.

AN illustrated price-list of echelon diffraction gratings, just issued by Messrs. Adam Hilger, 75a Camden Road, N.W., will be found to be of interest by all practical spectroscopists. The gratings contain from ten to forty plates, the corresponding prices, including suitable mounts. ranging from 131. to 120l. The heights of the plates vary from 32 mm. to 40 mm., but can be made higher than this if desired. The standard width of each step is 1 mm., and the thickness of each plate about 10 mm., but this latter dimension may be increased, with a corresponding increase in price, if so desired. The list also contains illustrated descriptions of the more generally used arrangements of the echelon apparatus and of the auxiliary spectroscopes and various accessories employed. Messrs. Hilger make a speciality of the constant deviation spectroscope most usefully employed with echelon gratings, and have just made an important alteration in the adaptation of the telescope and collimator which will greatly increase their rigidity, though the price remains the same.

THE results of a study of the infra-red region of the spectrum, made by M. Milan Stefanik at the Meudon Observatory, appear in the Comptes rendus for April 30. While working with the solar eclipse expedition in Spain, M. Stefanik found that, by placing a dark red screen before the slit of his spectroscope, he was able to see to a considerable distance into the infra-red. This led him to continue a research on this matter on his return to Meudon, where he employed a spectroscope having two prisms, containing benzine and carbon bisulphide respectively, and used as the light source an image of the sun projected on to the slit by a lens, after reflection from a silvered plane surface. Screens of various coloured alcoholic solutions were employed, and the best results were obtained when the screen absorbed all the luminous radiations of the spectrum, allowing only the extreme rel

and infra-red to pass. M. Stefanik has arrived at the conclusion that if only a limited region of the spectrum be allowed to enter the spectroscope this region is seen much better than if the total light were employed, for, despite the large absorption by the numerous pieces of glass included in his apparatus, he was able to observe and to map easily the spectrum down to 1 μ. The group Z was always easily visible, also X, and the lines T, S, σ, and T more rarely. It appears from the variations in the intensities of the lines that some of them are of telluric origin. According to the Annuaire of the Bureau des Longitudes the infra-red is visible to 0.795 μ, but by the employment of the screens M. Stefanik has extended the limit to a least 0-900 μ.

THE Oxford University Junior Scientific Club is to be congratulated on the May number of its Transactions. Prof. H. A. Miers gives an interesting account of his recent investigations, in collaboration with Miss Isaacs, of spontaneous crystallisation and the nature of supersaturated sclutions, while a paper by Mr. M. H. Godby, on the place of natural science in education, is full of good things, and deserves notice of a larger public.

Is a note in the Physikalische Zeitschrift (No. 8, p. 257) Drs. Stefan Meyer and Egon von Schweidler point out that Madame Curie, in a criticism of their work, referred to in NATURE (vol. xxiii., p. 549), misinterpreted the tenor of their original communication in assuming that they considered polonium to consist of a mixture of radium D, radium E, and radium F. The conclusion they actually formed (Proceedings of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, February 1) was in reality the same as that arrived at by Madame Curie, namely, that polonium is identical with radium F. In another paper (Vienna Academy of Sciences, Anzeiger, No. 12) Drs. Meyer and von Schweidler confirm, however, the view that radio-lead is a mixture of radium D, radium E, and radium F, and describe the separation of these substances by electrolysis. Several determinations of the constant of decay of radium E were made as a means of characterising this substance, and the nature of a new radio-active product from actinium is discussed.

THE transformation of oxygen into ozone at high temperatures is the subject of a paper by Messrs. Franz Fischer and Fritz Braehmer in the Physikalische Zeitschrift (No. 9). It is shown that when a platinum wire or a Nernst filament is rendered incandescent whilst surrounded by liquid oxygen, or when an arc lamp or hydrogen flame is played upon liquid oxygen, ozone is formed. When the action is prolonged the amount of ozone formed increases; in one experiment 1 per cent. by weight of the oxygen used underwent condensation. Experiments are adduced to prove that the formation of ozone in these cases is solely a thermal phenomenon, and is not to be referred to an ozonising ultra-violet radiation. When any of the methods of heating described are adopted in ordinary air, nitric oxide appears to be the sole product; in such a case the ozone is not cooled and removed from the sphere of action sufficiently quickly to prevent its decomposition. It is well known that when a hydrogen flame burning in Oxygen is played upon water or ice hydrogen peroxide is formed in minute quantity; it is interesting to note that when hydrogen is burnt in liquid oxygen no hydrogen peroxide can be detected. In the former case water is oxidised to hydrogen peroxide, in the latter molecular oxygen is converted into ozone.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. DISCUSSION OF FACULE OBSERVATIONS.-An interesting discussion of the observations of faculæ, in which Prof. Mascari compares the frequency and intensity of these phenomena with the solar activity as indicated by sunspots and the variation of the total luminous radiation from the solar disc, appears in No. 5, vol. xxxv., of the Memorie della Società degli Spettroscopisti Italiani.

Since 1894 the groups of faculæ on the solar disc have been observed, and their number and intensity recorded, on every day that the atmospheric conditions were favourbrightest (V.V.), bright (V.), ordinary, weak (d.), and able. The intensities were classified in five groups, viz. weakest (d.d.).

Analysing the results thus obtained, Prof. Mascari finds that the third class (and possibly the second and third classes) decreased in frequency from that year of sunspot maximum until 1901, sun-spot minimum, and then increased regularly up to the 1905 maximum. The (d.) and (d.d.) classes varied in the inverse sense.

for

Assigning numerical values to these classes, from the (V.V.) to I for the (d.d.), and taking the grouped mean for each year as the relative annual brightness of the faculæ, Prof. Mascari finds that this mean brightness also varies with the sun-spot activity, being 2.83 in 1894. 1.88 in 1901, and 2.97 in 1905. Combining, as a product, the mean frequency of the faculæ for each year with their relative mean brightness a similar result is obtained, the respective values being 29.80 in 1894, 462 in 1901, and 19.63 in 1905.

These results, combined with those obtained by himself in 1901 and Tacchini in 1878 showing that the chromospheric phenomena were less bright at sun-spot minima than at maxima, led Prof. Mascari to the conclusion that the luminous radiation of the sun is greater at the spot maxima than it is at the epochs of minima,

NEW METHOD FOR THE DISCOVERY OF ASTEROIDS.-In No. 4, vol. xxiii., of the Astrophysical Journal, Mr. J. H. Metcalf, of Taunton (Mass.), describes a method which he has employed successfully in the photographic discovery of asteroids.

This method is really an adaptation of that employed in the photography of comets, where the observer, instead of following the guiding star in the usual way, regularly moves the photographic plate during the exposure so that it follows the object which he hopes to photograph, and thus obtains a well-defined single image of that particular object, whilst the surrounding stars are represented on the plate by trails.

By moving his plate in a direction parallel to the ecliptic at a rate previously computed for an ideal asteroid, Mr. Metcalf has obtained some excellent, well-defined circular images of several known faint asteroids, and has also discovered some new ones. For example, one of the reproductions which accompany his paper shows a pair of images of an asteroid of the thirteenth magnitude which he discovered on March 22.

RADIAL VELOCITY OF DRACONIS.-A brief note by Herr H. Ludendorff, published in No. 4088 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, confirms the variability of the radial velocity of a Draconis announced by the Lick observers. According to the latter, the radial velocity on June 16, 1902, was o km., and on May 4, 1903, and June 19, 1904, it was −42 km.; values of -43 km. and -40 km. were also obtained.

On two plates secured with the Potsdam spectrograph (iv.) on May 23 and 24, 1903, the displacement of the lines A 4481 and Hy gave the radial velocity of this star as -17 km. and 14 km. respectively.

USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULE FOR ASTRONOMICAL COMPUTATIONS.-No. 15 of the Publications of the Groningen Astronomical Laboratory contains a number of tables for photographic parallax-observations, prepared by Dr. W. de Sitter. Each table gives the parallax factors, for each hour of R.A., for every 10° of latitude, and also shows the limiting dates between which a star of the stated R.A. may be observed photographically.

No. 16 of the same publications is given in the same volume, and contains a number of trigonometrical formulæ

and a table of goniometrical functions for the four quadrants, compiled by Profs. J. C. and W. Kapteyn; additional formulæ, both for plane and spherical triangles where certain elements are small, are also included.

THE LEEDS ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.-We have just received No. 13 of the Journal and Transactions of the Leeds Astronomical Society, which gives a brief résumé of the work accomplished by the members of the society during the year 1905.

Eight papers read before the society during the session, dealing with popular astronomical subjects, are reproduced in the journal, together with a number of notes contributed by members to various publications.

From remarks made in the report it appears that this society is greatly in need of increased support, financial and general.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

FROM the "Jahrbücher " of the Austrian Meteorological Office for 1904 it appears that changes have recently been made in the comprehensive operations of that important institution. A considerable addition to its labours has been incurred by the transfer to it of the observations of earthquake phenomena originated by the Vienna Academy of Sciences; this organisation embraces a large number of stations. Owing to this transfer the office has adopted the title of Central-Anstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik. A considerable increase has been made in the number of weather forecasts sent gratuitously to provincial postoffices; in these telegrams an attempt is made to forecast the weather for two days in advance. On the other hand, it has been found necessary greatly to restrict the amount of data published from stations of the second and third order; this materially lessens the bulk of the year-book. The investigation of the upper air by manned and unmanned balloons is actively continued, and the results are published in the Proceedings of the academy. A separate appendix contains a revision of the yearly means barometric pressure at various stations since 1886, by Dr. Margueles, and a discussion of thunderstorms and hail, by M. Prohaska.

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The results of meteorological and magnetical observations at Stonyhurst College for 1905 have just been issued. This useful observatory possesses photographic recording instruments both for meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, and was one of the seven principal stations included in the scheme of the Meteorological Committee in 1868 for the discussion of the meteorology of the British Isles; its observations extend over the long period of fiftyeight years. The most notable feature of the year appears to us to be the shortage of rainfall, amounting to just upon 8 inches. The total rainfall was 38.84 inches; the least fall in any year was 31.25 inches, in 1887. The prevailing wind was between south and west on 237 days. Drawings of solar spots and faculæ were made on 196 days, and the stellar spectrograph was employed on nearly every available night.

The fourteenth report of the Sonnblick Society for the year 1905 contains statistics of several prominent mountain meteorological stations, including an interesting account of the observatory at the summit of Monte Rosa, at an altitude of about 14,960 feet. The Sonnblick station (Salzburg) is about 10,190 feet above the sea-level, and is far from an agreeable residence for its enthusiastic observers. The mean temperature for the year 1905 was 199 F.; the monthly mean was only above freezing point in July and August, the absolute maxima in those months being 56°.8 and 45°7 respectively. Rain or snow fell on 230 days, amounting to 68-8 inches, and fog occurred on 274 days. On January 1 the thermometer fell to -35°.3. being the lowest observed since the establishment of the observatory, the next lowest reading being -30°.3, in March, 1890; the wind was north-easterly, with high barometric pressure (30.71 inches) over Scandinavia and low (29.53 inches) over Greece.

The twenty-eighth yearly report of the Deutsche Seewarte, for the year 1905, shows a considerable increase in the useful work of that institution; the number of sets

of observations contained in ships' logs exceeded those of the previous year by more than 28,000. These observations are utilised in the publication of monthly charts for the North Atlantic, quarterly charts for the North Sea and Baltic, the preparation of valuable daily synoptic weather charts of the North Atlantic (in conjunction with the Danish Meteorological Institute), and various other investigations. Special mention may be made of the efficiency of the arrangements for the issue of weather forecasts and storm warnings, and of the careful dis cussion and publication of the observations made at distant stations, including Labrador, the South Seas, the Far East, and German East Africa. The exploration of the upper air by means of kites is actively carried on; 233 ascents were made during the year, the mean of the greatest altitudes being 3910 metres. It has been found necessary to limit the altitudes, except on the days of the international ascents, owing to the frequent loss of the kites: the principal kite (which carries the instruments) broke away on twenty-two occasions, three of which were due to lightning. Unmanned balloons also reached altitudes of 9 to 17 kilometres; the usual inversion of temperature generally occurred between 9 and 11 kilometres. A discussion of the results obtained will be published later on.

The annual summary of the India Weather Review for 1904, which completes the discussion of the meteorology of India for that year, was issued recently. This vast area is, as before, divided into eleven provinces and fifty-seven districts for the purpose of dealing with medical and agricultural statistics respectively. In addition to various tables giving the usual monthly and other values, each element is separately considered under seasons, including the hot, cold, and monsoon periods. We can here only briefly refer to some of the general annual results. The year was characterised by smaller departures from the normal temperature than is frequently the case; the mean of the maxima for the eleven meteorological provinces was 88°.0, of the minima 68°7, and the mean daily range 19°4. The Arabian Sea was singularly free from storms: only eleven occurred, and they were all comparatively feeble, and their tracks were less westerly than usual. The rainfall stations now number 2486; the mean amount of rainfall was 57-26 inches, about 1 inches below the normal. On the Burma coast the fall was 152-65 inches, and in the Indus valley only 7.26 inches. During the year there was a marked increase in the number of sun-spots: the surface of the sun was not free from them on any day. Magnetic disturbances were recorded at Colába on 205 days. but there were only three days on which they were classed as great.

The report of the Government Observatory, Bombay, for the year 1905 also quotes a remarkable deficit in the rainfall, it being stated as 41.5 inches below the normal of twenty-four years, 1873-1896. The total fall for the year was 33.66 inches only, and the amount for the previous year was 33.42 inches, both of which are record minimum falls, not even excepting that for the famine year, 1800, when 35.9 inches were registered. Milne's seismograph recorded thirty-seven earthquakes during 1905: those on April 4 and 9 and July 23 were very great disturbances. Plague in a severe epidemic form broke out at Alibág, but no cases occurred in the immediate vicinity of the branch magnetic observatory at that place; one case occurred at Colába in the month of April, notwithstanding that all precautions were taken.

The annual report of the Meteorological Department of the Transvaal for the year ended June 30, 1905, was received a few days ago. The central observatory, near Johannesburg, was first occupied in May, 1004, and is situated on an abrupt ridge of hills, nearly 6000 feet above sea-level. The department has been very active in supply. ing verified instruments, and has already some 250 stations in different parts of the colony, the majority of which record rainfall only; the observers are mostly volunteers, and receive no remuneration. The report, however, contains complete meteorological observations, or monthly results, for a considerable number of places, and very useful maps exhibiting the climatological features of the vear in various districts. The diurnal periodicity of rainfall, so far as given, shows that the greater part occurs between noon and midnight. Nearly every fall of rain is