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We have now, we believe, put the the one cannot be brought into comreader in possession of all the most im-parison with the other. The photogenic portant facts concerning the photogenic drawing described in the previous pages drawing on paper; but there is yet one is but a pleasant philosophical amuseother circumstance to mention, which ment, and yet it has some uses. It may has been only incidentally alluded to, and be employed in taking portraits, in may be said to be rather implied than copying etchings and paintings on glass, stated in any part of our previous de- as well as fabrics and patterns; but its scription. We refer to the action of principal use is in collecting representvarious lights, or, in other words, the ations of microscopic objects. "The light obtained from different sources. objects which the microscope unfolds to Solar light consists of several rays of our view," says Mr. Talbot, "curious different colours and of different pro- and wonderful as they are, are often perties: some are luminous, some heat- singularly complicated. The eye ining, and some chemical. Now it is deed may comprehend the whole which found by experiment, that the chemical is presented to it in the field of view; rays in the most common artificial lights but the powers of the pencil fail to are not sufficiently powerful to act upon express these minutia of nature in their the prepared paper. It is said, that innumerable details. What artist could not even the brilliant light of the voltaic have skill or patience enough to copy battery has the slightest effect; and in them? or granting that he could do so, fact that it is only the light produced must it not be at the expense of much by the combustion of the mixed gases most valuable time which might be more (oxygen and hydrogen) upon lime, which usefully employed ?" But whatever adcan effect the same chemical change vantages are to be derived from the on the paper as the solar rays. Mr. system which we have attempted to Mallet has, however, communicated to describe, there can be no doubt that the Royal Irish Academy a most inter- they may be better obtained from the esting and valuable discovery, that the use of M. Daguerre's process, and it light emitted by burning coke has the is well known that effects may be prosame effect as that given out by the oxy-duced by it to which the other can have hydrogen apparatus, or the sun itself. no pretension. Some time since, he says, he discovered that the light emitted by incandescent coke contained the chemical rays in abundance. With a knowledge of this fact, he attempted to employ it in photogenic drawing, and found that a prepared paper was intensely blackened in about forty-five seconds. If this discovery stand the test of experiment, it is one of the most important which has been yet made; for a convenient artificial light is almost indispensable to our receiving all the benefits which are to be derived from the photogenic process.

This leads us in the last place to state some of the purposes to which the photogenic drawing may be applied. In several parts of this and a previous paper we have alluded to the high value we attribute to the process, and have spoken of it as one of the most important inventions of this prolific age. It must not, however, be supposed that these encomiums are intended merely for the process we have just described. The method to be hereafter spoken of and known in France, and to some extent in this country, as Daguerreotype, is of so much greater importance that

ENGLISH HISTORY.

ELIZABETH.

(Continued from page 25.)

H.

The state of affairs in Scotland became less and less satisfactory. The persecutions to which the Protestants had been subjected, with the determination to restore Popery in its full extent, evinced by Mary's counsellors before her arrival, and by herself afterwards, obliged the reformers to take an active part in the affairs of the nation. Thus Knox and others, of whose piety there can be no doubt, were brought into direct collision with the queen. It is usual to speak in strong terms of censure respecting the conduct of Knox in daring to remonstrate boldly with queen Mary respecting her proceedings. But the state of things was too serious to admit of trifling, or of close adherence to courtly forms. Not only the lives, but the souls of his countrymen were at stake. Knox was placed in a situation of responsibility. A deep sense of this enabled him firmly to pursue what he considered to be his duty. Those who have studied the character and

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writings of this intrepid servant of God, will not be inclined to censure him, any more than the prophet Elijah for reproving Ahab and his idolatrous queen. But many a nominal Christian of our day, would doubtless censure that prophet, for what they would call his harsh and uncourtly conduct towards Jezebel! Mary, like the wife of Ahab, as supreme ruler of Scotland, had to answer for the blood of the prophets of the Lord who had been slain by those who governed in her name, and whose acts she had not disavowed. She was ready to resume the persecutions, and push them to the utmost. Was such a character not to be told the truth? Was she only to have smooth things prophesied to her? And it is not for Mary's advocates to censure the boldness with which Knox spoke in the pulpit. At the same time, Popish preachers in France and elsewhere used much stronger language, openly stirring up subjects to rebellion. Her proceedings against Knox were such as to force him to oppose her authority. In December, 1563, she caused him to be brought before her council on a charge of treason, for having written to some leading Protestants, requesting their presence at the The disposition of the English Papists trial of some persons charged with felony, to trouble Elizabeth, had been shown for having rebuked a Popish priest when already on several occasions. In June, about to celebrate mass during the queen's 1561, the steeple and roof of St. Paul's absence from Edinburgh. The queen church were destroyed by fire kindled by herself attended the council, and when lightning, when some Papists circulated she perceived Knox standing as a crimi- papers alleging this to be a Divine judgnal, she burst into loud laughter, saying, ment, because the Popish services in that "That man had made her weep, and cathedral were discontinued. Pilkington, shed never a tear himself; she would bishop of Durham, answered this in a now see if she could make him weep.' tract which exposed the gross superstiShe interfered repeatedly against him; tious observances, and other evil pracbut the lords unanimously pronounced tices and cruelties committed within that that he had not been guilty of any breach building in the days of Popery. The of the laws. The vindictive spirit of public freely came forward with contriMary has not been sufficiently noticed.butions for the repairs; a temporary roof It accounts for many of her actions, while it shows why no confidence could be placed in her promises. She was an apt scholar of the Guisian princes.

enemies both at home and abroad. This was accomplished by strict frugality. Her favourites, indeed, complained, and in some respects her parsimony was carried too far; but it was better that a few individuals should lack reward, than that the nation should be impoverished, to gratify the vanity and folly of royal favourites.

In 1562, the Protestants in France were openly persecuted. This began by the massacre of a considerable number, when assembled for public worship at Vassy, a town governed in the name of Mary Stuart, as late queen of France, who received an income from its inhabitants. The duke of Guise, with his brother the cardinal, directed this massacre, upon receiving a complaint of the number of Protestants in that neighbourhood from an aunt of the queen of Scots. Other deeds of violence followed, which caused the French Protestants to apply to Elizabeth for assistance; she gave them aid, well knowing her own danger if the Popish party prevailed, but avoided engaging in direct warfare, except by occupying Havre as a place of security for her forces.

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The administration of Elizabeth presented a striking contrast to that of her sister Mary. Having obtained peace with the surrounding nations, she gave full encouragement to the arts of peace, and to commerce, according to the views then | entertained. But especially she was anxious to provide the necessary expenses of government with the least possible charge to her subjects, while, being threatened both by Spain and France, she had to adopt precautions against

was completed before winter, and the whole secured the next year; but the steeple, the summit of which was 520 feet from the ground, was never rebuilt. The seditious and treasonable practices of the Papists increased; this caused an act to be passed, early in 1563, whereby a second refusal of the oath of supremacy, and the maintaining the authority of the Pope in England, were declared to be treason. This cannot be considered as persecution against the Romanists for religion. It in no way interfered with their religious views, but only restrained them from attempting any thing against the queen's authority; a course which

every ruler must pursue for self-preserv- | ation. The fears of a disputed succession induced the House of Commons again to petition the queen to marry, or to name her successor; to the first she was decidedly averse, the second would involve her in danger. She therefore returned an evasive answer. About this time she showed her sensitiveness on the subject, by causing lady Catherine Gray to be imprisoned in consequence of her secret marriage with the earl of Hertford. This unfortunate lady was next in succession by the will of Henry VIII., but was not so near by descent as Mary, queen of Scots. The proceedings of Elizabeth in this matter cannot be justified, especially as the lady Catherine was kept a prisoner till her death, about four years afterwards, and her marriage was not allowed to be lawful till the following reign.

The surviving brothers of_the_Pole family also planned to dethrone Elizabeth; but their plot in favour of Mary Stuart was discovered, and they were convicted, though not put to death.

The death of the duke of Guise, with the interference of Elizabeth, caused the French court to grant terms to the Huguenots, as the Protestants in that country were called; but the latter did not support their ally. The English troops were withdrawn from Havre, after a fruitless attempt to retain that place as an equivalent for Calais.

An act passed in the parliament this year, provided that the Bible should be translated into Welsh, and that the religious services in that country should be in the native tongue. Well would it have been had similar provision been made for religious services, in those parts of Ireland where English was not understood; but, unhappily, the only alternative given there was English or Latin: thus the people were kept in ignorance, and one of the worst errors of Popery, Divine worship in an unknown tongue, was continued. St. Paul declared, "In the church I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that by my voice I might teach others also, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue,' 1 Cor. xiv. 19.

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In 1564, the queen of Scotland was inclined to form a second marriage. This was an important matter to England. If a powerful foreign alliance were formed, Mary's claim to the throne would be enforced; Elizabeth therefore interfered,

both openly and by secret measures, to prevent any alliance with the continental princes attached to Popery. In these, as in other matters of state policy, there were crooked proceedings which it is impossible clearly to fathom or approve. Elizabeth occupied Mary for some time by urging her to marry Dudley, earl of Leicester. Mary disdained him as her inferior, although for a time she pretended to think of him, and suddenly determined to give her hand to Henry, lord Darnley, son of the earl of Lennox, a grandson of Margaret, sister of Henry VIII., by her second marriage. Some have thought that Elizabeth in reality, promoted this union, though she affected to be much displeased. She would have preferred to keep Mary unmarried, but certainly this marriage would not be so prejudicial to the English interests as one with a foreign prince. This union commended itself to Mary, as in addition to Darnley's personable appearance, it prevented any claims on his part to the Scottish crown; and while it strengthened her own position, it rendered her independent of England. Thus, while finessing with the English government, she suddenly adopted the course most likely to promote her own views. And had it not been for the ill conduct of Darnley, the measure would have been a happy one for Mary. This union took place in July, 1565, while its being formed in opposition to Elizabeth's remonstrances, gave the latter a pretext, though a very unjustifiable one, for promoting the discontents in Scotland. She encouraged the earl of Murray, Mary's half-brother, to oppose his sister's marriage; but when he was obliged to take shelter in England, she disavowed any part in his proceed. ings, yet gave him private support.

Darnley was a weak profligate youth; he soon disgusted Mary, and quarrelled with her favourite Rizzio, a Piedmontese musician of low birth, whom Mary, with her accustomed weakness, favoured so as to raise scandalous reports, and to excite the displeasure of the Scottish nobility. Several nobles united with the king in a plot against this minion. They entered the queen's apartment while she was at supper with Rizzio; the latter was dragged from her presence, and stabbed to death in an adjoining gallery. This atrocity completely extinguished Mary's regard for Darnley, though for a time she pretended to be on good terms with him, that she might detach him from the

nobles who had planned and executed | juncture, Darnley was seized with severe the murder of Rizzio. illness from the small-pox; the queen In June 1566, Mary gave birth to a visited him at Glasgow, where she exson, afterwards James 1. When Eliza-hibited an appearance of returning afbeth heard of this event, she gave way fection, although at the time she was in to feelings of female rivalry, lamenting correspondence with Bothwell, who enthat the queen of Scots was mother of gaged that means should be found for a fair son, while she herself was a barren relieving her from her union. When stock; but recovered herself to receive Darnley was a little recovered, Mary the Scottish envoy, and engaged to be caused him to be removed to Edinburgh, sponsor to the young prince. The Eng- where, on the pretence of enjoying lish parliament renewed the recommend- better air than at the palace, by the sugation about the succession; but Eliza- gestion of Bothwell, he was lodged in the beth was so anxious to avoid the settle- Kirk of Field, on the spot where the ment of this question, that she relin- buildings of the university now stand, quished a part of the grant given by this but then a lone house, just without the parliament, rather than allow farther walls of the city. The queen slept debates on the subject. Some may be several nights in an apartment under that surprised at the aversion always mani- of Darnley; till on Sunday evening, fested by Elizabeth, to allow any settle- February 10, she returned to the palace ment to be made respecting the succes- to be present at a masked ball, given on sion it may partly have arisen from occasion of the marriage of one of her a portion of her father's jealous spirit; servants, the due observance of the sabbut, on reflection, the wisdom of her bath being disregarded by her, as comconduct will appear. If Mary had been monly is the case in Popish countries. recognized as successor to the English Soon after midnight, the sound of an exthrone, all those would be alarmed who plosion was heard. The lone house had justly dreaded another Popish queen; been blown up with gunpowder, but the while Mary's own partizans would re- bodies of Darnley and an attendant were present it as a proof that Elizabeth allow-found uninjured in an adjoining garden. ed her rival's title to be preferable to her own. To set Mary aside would be unjust, would have countenanced others to bring forward unfounded claims, and would have driven Mary's partizans to open attempts in her favour, as the only means to secure her succession.

Without entering minutely into the history of Elizabeth's suitors, it is enough to enumerate those who appeared in the early part of her reign: the foreigners were Philip, king of Spain, the archduke Charles of Austria, Eric, king of Sweden, Adolphus duke of Holstein, and the earl of Arran. Among her own subjects, the most favoured seemed to be, sir William Pickering, the earl of Arundel, and lord Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of Leicester; but there is no just cause to believe that Elizabeth ever purposed to marry at times she entertained various proposals, to satisfy her people.

Darnley and queen Mary were openly on ill terms; he was not present at the christening of the young prince, but intimated a desire to retire to the continent, since he found himself unpopular with the nation, and the queen had begun to manifest undue regard for the profligate earl of Bothwell. At this

Many volumes have been written respecting this murder. The result now generally admitted by impartial historians is, that Bothwell was the main contriver of the deed, assisted by earl Morton, and probably by some other nobles. Morton admitted that Bothwell had urged him to join in this atrocious act, with an assurance that the queen desired it.

But there is not sufficient ground to fix Mary with being a direct participator in the plot, though it is evident that she had entered into a guilty correspondence with Bothwell, and looked to him for deliverance, by some means, from her unhappy marriage. It is but too probable that she was prepared for a fatal result, when we think of the school in which she had been brought up. Considering the principles and practices of those times, her hatred to Darnley, and the devices in which she undoubtedly was engaged, it is likely she was prepared for a deed of violence. Some of the leading nobles commenced a judicial inquiry; but when a man named Nelson, who was found unhurt among the ruins, stated, that the keys of the rooms, and of that in which Bothwell slept, were in the care of the queen's servants, they proceeded no farther.

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THE attainment of truth is one of the | great objects, which the naturalist and the lover of science have perpetually in view; and the dissipation of old established errors, and the elucidation of doubtful points, are ever hailed with gladness.

Since the days of Aristotle, the history of the argonaut, or paper nautilus, has been enveloped in a tissue of misconceptions and difficulties; and it is only within the last few months that we have obtained an accurate knowledge of this singular animal. Long as the argonaut has been known, and abundant as it is in the Mediterranean, it is chiefly owing to the well-conducted experiments and unremitted observations of a French lady residing in Sicily, (Madame Jeannette Power,) who has transmitted the results of her researches, with collections of specimens in illustration of them, to the different learned societies of Italy, France, and England, that we now understand its true nature.

First, then, naturalists have been greatly in doubt, as to the claim of the animal (Cephalopod) to the shell it is found to inhabit, and many arguments have been adduced, that like the hermit crabs, (Pagurus,) this cepha

lopod was an intruder into a habitation not constructed by itself; but either usurped during the life, or taken possession of after the death of its lawful and natural proprietor-a proprietor, however, undiscovered. Among scientific men who have adopted these views, are to be enumerated some of the most eminent, (certainly not all,) both in France and England.

Secondly. From the earliest times to the present, it has been a commonly received opinion, that the velated dorsal arms, usually called the sails, were used by the animal to catch the breeze as it floated on the calm surface of the sea, and that thus it was propelled on its voyage.

Now, with respect to our first point, it is incontestably proved that the cephalopod of the argonaut is truly the maker of its own dwelling; and that consequently it is not a parasite like the Pagurus. Specimens in every stage of growth, from young individuals the shell of which only weighed a grain and a half, up to those of the ordinary size, have been transmitted to England by Madame Power, and accurately examined by Mr. Owen, Hunterian Professor of the Royal College of Surgeons,

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