He next gave a general description of the ruins, and a more detailed one of the Kasr, the Mujellibeh, the Embankment, and the Birs Nemroud. The first he considered as the ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's palace; the second as belonging to the palace, or to its hanging gardens; the Embankments, with the hill of Amran, he believed to be a part of the defences of the city toward the river; and the Birs Nemroud, he considered with Rich as the ruins of the tower of Belus. He discussed at some length the arguments advanced by Rennell and Mignan against this latter opinion, chiefly founded on the account of Ctesias, that there were two palaces, one on each bank of the river, and that the principal one was on the western bank, and that the tower of Belus was on the opposite side. Ctesias being the only original writer who mentions two palaces, and his account not being confirmed by Herodotus, or any other ancient authority, and the glaring inconsistencies of his narrative in other respects entitling him to little credit, when he is not confirmed by other authors, it was concluded that we had no good reason to believe that two palaces had existed, far less that the most considerable was on the western bank of the river, especially as no remains, which can at all be regarded as the ruins of a palace, exist on that side; while in the Kasr we have remains of a pile, sumptuous in its material, of the finest furnace-baked brick, and magnificent for its extent, occupying a central position among the conspicuous ruins on the eastern bank, and enclosed on three sides by immense embankments, answering to the description left us by Herodotus of the strong interior wall which surrounded the palace.

The author next endeavoured to shew, that the Birs Nemroud answers better than any other of the remains to the description of the tower of Belus.

He next shewed, that the remains of reeds found between the courses of sun-dried bricks, correspond to Herodotus's description of reeds being used in the lower part of the Babylonian structures, —δια τριήκοντα δομων πλινθου—“ for thirty courses of brick,” not as our translators have made it, "between every thirtieth course.”

Lastly, he examined the varying accounts of ancient authors with regard to the extent of the walls of ancient Babylon, and shewed, that if we adopt the least circuit given to them, that of Ctesias and Diodorus Siculus, it would make the circuit of the city 41 miles, while that of Herodotus would give a circumference of 55 miles,—— either of them vastly greater than any idea we can form by comparison with the largest of modern cities: but the author observed, that there is every reason to believe that the vast area was not filled with houses, but contained fields and orchards interspersed; which is not only probable from what we know of modern Asiatic cities, but may be inferred from ancient authors, and especially from some remarks of Aristotle, who states that Babylon was rather "a community than a city, like the Peloponnesus. If we confine the city to the limits assigned by Diodorus, it will not include all the existing remains; whereas the limits assigned by Herodotus include all those venerable ruins in the vicinity of Hillah, that still astonish us by their stupendous dimensions.

99

2. On the Expansibility of different kinds of Stone. By Mr Alex. J. Adie, Civil Engineer.

1 30,000

This paper contains the results of an extensive series of experiments made upon different kinds of stone, as well as upon iron and upon brick, porcelain, and other artificial substances. The instrument employed was a pyrometer, of a simple construction, capable of determining quantities not greater than of an inch. The length of the substances generally employed was 23 inches. The general result of these experiments is, that the ordinary building materials of stone expand but very little differently from cast-iron, and that, consequently, the mixture of those materials in edifices is not injurious to their durability. The experiments from which the expansibility of the substances was numerically determined, were made between the limits of ordinary atmospheric temperature and that of 212°; steam being introduced for that purpose between the double casing of the instrument.

The following results were obtained for the fractional expansion of the length, for a change of temperature of 180° Fahr.:

Table of the Expansion of Stone, &c.

1. Roman Cement,

2. Sicilian White Marble,

3. Carrara Marble,

4. Sandstone from the Liver Rock of Craigleith Quarry,

5. Cast-iron from a rod cut from a bar cast 2 inches square, 6. Cast-iron from a rod cast half an inch square,

7. Slate from Penrhyn Quarry, Wales,

8. Peterhead Red Granite,

9. Arbroath Pavement,

10. Caithness Pavement,

11. Greenstone from Ratho,

12. Aberdeen Gray Granite,

13. Best Stock Brick,

14. Fire Brick,

15. Stalk of a Dutch Tobacco-pipe,

16. Round rod of Wedgewood Ware (11 inches long),

17. Black Marble from Galway, Ireland,

Decimal of length

for 180° Fahr. .0014349 .00110411 .0006539 .0011743 .00114676 .001102166

.0010376

.0008968

.0008985

.0008947

.0008089

.00078943

.0005502

.0004928

.0004573

.00045294

⚫00044519

27th April.-Sir THOMAS M. BRISBANE, President, in the Chair. The following communications were read:

1. On the Action of Voltaic Electricity on Alcohol, Ether, and Aqueous Solutions. By Arthur Connell, Esq.

2. A Review of some of the more important Physical Truths contained in the writings of the Greek Philosophers, preparatory to an attempt to show that the more ancient language of Greece was based upon the Truths of Natural Philosophy. By the Rev. Archdeacon Williams.

Proceedings of the Wernerian Natural History Society.

1835, March 21.-Dr CHARLES ANDERSON, formerly, V. P. in the chair:

A paper was read on the Geology of the Island of Skye, by R. J. Hay Cunninghame, Esq. The author described first, the stratified rocks in the ascending order, from the primary strata to the oolitic deposits occurring in the island; then the unstratified or plutonic masses; and concluded with an enumeration of the relations of the two great series. Numerous sketches and sections and specimens illustrating his remarks were exhibited.

Sir Patrick Walker then laid before the meeting a series of fine marbles, which he had brought from the quarries of Bagneres de Bigorre.

Professor Jameson exhibited and described a series of bird from the Himmalayan Mountains, considered as identical, or nearly so, with the European: Strix passerina; Alcedo ispida; Parus major; Motacilla alba, boarula, Garrulus glandarius; Caryocatactes vulgaris; Ardea nyticorax; Numenius arquata, phœopus; Tringa squatarola, hypoleucos, pusilla, ochropus; Charadius pluvialis; Cursorius hæmantopus; Podiceps minor; Edicnemus crepitans; Pterocles arenarius; Anas clypeata, penelope, querquedula, crecca. After exhibiting and comparing the trivial characters of the above species with the European, it was stated, that even if all the external characters were the same, but if the shape of the head differed, we were entitled, from that character alone, to make a new species; and as illustrative of this opinion, it was stated, on the authority of Brehm and others, that, generally speaking, no two species with plumage, &c. the same, but with different shapes of head, agreed in their habits and manners, nor were they ever found to breed with each other. Professor Jameson also exhibited a specimen of the female of the Cypselus longipennis, which he had received from Northern India, and stated that it only differed from the male figured by Temminck and Swainson, in wanting the brownish-red patches on the side of the neck; in other characters it is identical.

1835, April 4.-Dr CHARLES ANDERSON, formerly V. P. in the chair.

There was read a communication from Mr R. H. Parnell regarding some new and rare fishes which he had procured from the Frith of Forth. In addition to the ample list of fishes found in the Forth, given by Dr Neill, and published in the Transactions of the Society, the author has detected nine others, two of which are new to science; one he referred to the genus Solea, the other to that of Platessa.

New Species of Sole. This evidently enough belongs to the family Pleuronectis, but perhaps can scarcely find a place in any genus at present known. It varies much in shape, sometimes resembling a Brill, at others a Sole; in character it mostly resembles the genus Solea, in having the teeth deficient on the eye side, but in consequence of the mouth not being twisted, and the whole fish covered with a strong cuticle, it cannot be placed in that genus; it differs from all the other genera in having the teeth deficient on the eye side. When recent, length sixteen inches, breadth nine and a half, and one inch thick; mottled with white, yellow, and brown; the lateral line arched, two inches in length, and a quarter of an inch in breadth over the pectoral fin, from thence running straight to the tail. Jaws equal, each furnished with a row of obtuse cutting teeth, very closely set together, extending but half way round, and being deficient on the eye-side. The first two teeth on the lower jaw on the eye-side are the largest, and a little apart from the others; the eyes are large, situated on the right side, the irides of a light yellow colour; pectoral fins with nine rays; ventral fins five, anal fin seventy-three. Dorsal fin ninety rays, the first commencing over the eye, and running within half an inch of the tail; caudal fin rounded at the end, with sixteen rays. The whole fish is covered with a strong cuticle, rendering the scales very adhe rent, and the whole surface smooth. The first specimen which Mr Parnell observed was in February last, which he sent to Dr Greville, who made an accurate drawing of it. In March he found them more plentiful, and in April they entirely disappeared; they are known to the fishermen by the name of French Sole, and appear to be confined to the Fifeshire coast, where they are taken with the hook on the fine sandy banks. VOL. XIX. NO. XXXVII.-JULY 1835.

New species of Platessa.-This fish seems much rarer than the last, as Mr Parnell has not had an opportunity of observing more than two specimens. It agrees with the genus Platessa, in having the mouth entire, with a row of obtuse cutting teeth round each jaw, tail rounded at the end, and the eyes placed on the right side. It differs from the Platessa vulgaris, in having no tubercles on the head; from the Platessa flesus, in not having a band of small spines on the side line; from the Platessa limanda, in not having the scales ciliated at their margin. It approaches nearer to the Platessa microcephalus, (as a variety of which it was regarded by Dr Neill); but it differs from it in having the lateral line nearly straight, the lower jaw longer than the upper, and the scales large. In shape it resembles the sole. Length sixteen inches and a half, breadth eight and a half, and one inch thick; lateral line arched one-eighth of an inch over the pectoral fin; eyes large, situated on the right side, irides silvery; mouth small, under jaw the longest, teeth small, closely set together; pectoral fin with eleven rays, ventral fins with six rays, anal fin with ninety-three rays; dorsal fin consists of 109 rays, the first ray commencing over the eye, and running within half an inch of the tail; the caudal fin rounded at the end, furnished with twenty-three rays. Scales large, very deciduous; the whole fish is of a yellowish-brown colour. It is known to the fishermen under the appellation of Craig Fluke, but they appear to confound it with the last, in consequence of some similarity.

Pleuronectes limandanus.-This fish is by no means rare in the Frith of Forth; it is known to most of the fishermen by the name of Sandnecker, or long fluke. Bloch has noticed it, under the name of Pleuronectes limandanus, as inhabiting the northern seas, but it has not as yet found its way into the works on British Ichthyology. Length ten inches, breadth four and a half, and much resembling the halibut in shape; lateral line nearly straight; mouth large, each jaw is furnished with a row of obtuse irregular sharp-pointed teeth, set a little apart from each other; pectoral fin consists of eight rays, anal fin of sixty rays; dorsal fin of eighty-five rays; the tail forms an angle, when expanded; it is furnished with sixteen rays; scales large, ciliated at their free extremity, which renders the fish rough to the touch; the whole fish is of a brown colour. They are taken with the hook in the sandy parts of the Frith of Forth, mostly on the