Frankland stand forth as examples of a higher culture the one, that at Orleans, under Theodulfus; the other, that at Rheims.

The lively interest taken by Theodulfus in everything that related to the education of his day is attested by numerous facts, . . . Ably seconded by the poet Wulfin, Theodulfus raised the school at Orleans to considerable eminence. It became especially famous for the number, beauty, and accuracy of its

manuscripts.

Yet more renowned was the episcopal school at Rheims, which, under the protection of Hincmar, the oracle and arbiter of the state in the days of Charles the Bald, and under the teaching of archbishop Fulk, of Remy of Auxerre, and of Hucbald, claims the proud distinction of having preserved, in this century, that tradition of learning which links the episcopal schools with the University of Paris.

But throughout the ninth century, and indeed for the greater part of the period sca known as "the Benedictine

FIG. 13. A SCHOOL OF MENDICANT MONKS (After a miniature of manuscript No. 21,252 in the Burgundy Library, Brussels. The miniature dates from the early fifteenth century)

ing and illustrious as a parent foundation. It disappears beneath the waves of the Norman invasion; but its namesake, New Corbey, in Saxony, sustained with equal reputation, and more auspicious fortunes, the scholarly traditions of the age. The great abbey of Saint Riquier, under the rule of Angilbert, rivalled the school at Rheims in literary activity; and an inventory of its possessions, made in the year 831 by the direction of Lewis the Pious, included a library of no less than 231

volumes. The abbey of Saint Martin at Metz, under the rule of Aldricus, was scarcely less celebrated; a Bible presented by its monks to Charles the Bald and the missal of Bishop Drogo are still preserved, and rank among the most valued specimens of ninth-century art. The society of Saint Mihiel-sur-Meuse enjoyed the instruction of Smaragdus, whose compend from Donatus frequently appears in the catalogues of the libraries of the period. Saint Bertin, in the diocese of Cambrai, laid claim to the distinguished honour of having educated Grimbald, King Alfred's able seconder in his efforts toward a restoration of learning in England. At Ferrières, in the Gâtinais, the genius of Lupus Servatus shone forth in the troublous and disheartening period which immediately preceded and followed upon the division of the empire.

The South and South-West present fewer evidences of culture; and in the ninth century no foundation, either in Normandy or Brittany, can be said to have reached celebrity; while in Aquitaine, if we except the labours of Benedict of Aniane in the diocese of Montpellier, the efforts of Lewis the Pious on behalf of his patrimonial kingdom seem to have been baffled by the frequent recurrence of war.

72. The School at Salisbury Cathedral

(As provided for in the Foundation Statutes of the Cathedral, of 1091 A.D.; trans. by A. F. Leach)

This extract from the Cathedral Statutes outlines the duties of the different church officers, and particularly sets forth the authority of the Precentor and Schoolmaster connected therewith.

The Institution of Osmund

These are the dignities and customs of the church of Salisbury, which I, Osmund, bishop of that church, in the name of the Holy Trinity, in the year of our Lord 1091, established and granted to the persons and canons of the same church, with the advice of the lords, the archbishop and other my co-bishops whose names are subscribed, and with the assent of the lord King William; namely, that Dean and Chanter, Chancellor and Treasurer shall be continually resident in the church at Salisbury, without any kind of excuse. . . . Nothing can excuse the canons from being personally resident in the church of Salisbury, except attendance at the schools and the service of the lord King, who can have one in his chapel, and the archbishop one, and the bishop three. The dean presided over all canons and vicars as regards the cure of souls and correction of conduct.

The precentor ought to rule the choir as to chanting and can raise or lower the chant.

The treasurer is pre-eminent in keeping the treasures and ornaments

and managing the lights. In like manner the chancellor in ruling the school and correcting the books.

The archdeacons excel in the superintendence of parishes and the cure of souls.

Dean and precentor, treasurer and chancellor, receive double, the rest of the canons single commons.

The sub-dean holds from the dean the archdeaconry of the city and suburbs, the succentor from the precentor all that pertains to the singing. If the dean is away from the church the sub-dean fills his place, and the succentor in like manner the precentor's.

The schoolmaster ought to hear and determine the lessons, and carry the church seal, compose letters and deeds and mark the readers on the table, and the precentor in like manner the singers. . . .

73. Foundation Grant for a Chantry School

(Foundation Grant of Aldwincle Chantry; trans. by A. F. Leach)

A very common form of later mediaval school foundation was what was known as the Chantry, a priest being provided for in an endowment to say prayers for the repose of some soul, and being required to do some teaching besides to occupy his time. This selection illustrates such a foundation. The priest here provided for was also to give instruction in speiling and reading to six poor boys of the town. The grant is dated November 8, 1489, but in substance is like many much earlier documents.

To all sons of holy mother church ... William Chamber, of Aldwincle, in the county of Northampton, health. . . .

...

... I make known to you all by these presents that I.... have given... to Sir John Seliman, chaplain, for his maintenance and that of his successors . . . celebrating divine service every day at the altar of Saint Mary the Virgin, in the parish church of All Saints . . . for all the souls aforesaid for ever my manor of Armeston [and other property]. That this ordinance may endure for ever I will and ordain that the chantry aforesaid shall be for ever called "The chantry of William Chamber, William Aldwincle and Elizabeth their wife," and that the chaplain for the time being shall every day... celebrate mass at the altar aforesaid. . . .

Moreover I will and ordain that the said chaplain for the time being shall teach and instruct, in spelling and reading, six of the poorest boys of the town of Aldwincle aforesaid, to be named by me and my wife Elizabeth while we are alive, and after our death three named by the rector of Saint Peter's church in Aldwincle aforesaid, and the other three by the chaplain for the time being, freely, without demanding or taking any remuneration from their parents or friends; and the boys,

when they have been so instructed and taught, shall say every night in All Saints' church in Aldwincle aforesaid, at the direction of the chaplain aforesaid, for our souls and the souls of all the faithful departed, the psalm "Out of the deep," with the prayers "Incline thine ear" and 66 'God of the faithful."

74. The Seven Liberal Arts

(Rhabanus Maurus, Education of the Clergy; trans. by F. V. N. Painter, from the German text of Schulz, Gansen, and Keller, in his Great Pedagogical Essays. American Book Co., New York, 1905. Reproduced by permission.)

Rhabanus Maurus (784?-856) was a pupil of Alcuin at Tours, and afterwards became Scholasticus of the monastery at Fulda (818); was Abbot there from 822 to 842; and in 847 was made Archbishop of Mainz. He was a devoted student of the Seven Liberal Arts and of classical and Biblical literatures. The work from which the following extract is taken was written in 819.

The first of the liberal arts is Grammar, the second Rhetoric, the third Dialectic, the fourth Arithmetic, the fifth Geometry, the sixth Music, the seventh Astronomy.

(a) Grammar. Grammar takes its name from the written character, as the derivation of the word indicates. The definition of grammar is this: Grammar is the science which teaches us to explain the poets and historians; it is the art which qualifies us to write and speak correctly. Grammar is the source and foundation of the liberal arts. It should be taught in every Christian school, since the art of writing and speaking correctly is attained through it. How could one understand the sense of the spoken word or the meaning of letters and syllables, if one had not learned this before from grammar? How could one know about metrical feet, accent, and verses, if grammar had not given one knowledge of them? How should one learn to know the articulation of discourse, the advantages of figurative language, the laws of word formation, and the correct forms of words, if one had not familiarized himself with the art of grammar?

All the forms of speech, of which secular science makes use in its writings, are found repeatedly employed in the Holy Scriptures. Every one, who reads the sacred Scriptures with care, will discover that our (biblical) authors have used derivative forms of speech in greater and more manifold abundance than would have been supposed and believed. There are in the Scriptures not only examples of all kinds of figurative expressions, but the designations of some of them by name; as allegory, riddle, parable. A knowledge of these things is proved to be necessary in relation to the interpretation of those passages of Holy Scripture which admit of a two-fold sense; an interpretation strictly

literal would lead to absurdities. Everywhere we are to consider whether that, which we do not at once understand, is to be apprehended as a figurative expression in some sense. A knowledge of prosody, which is offered in grammar, is not dishonorable, since among the Jews, as Saint Jerome testifies, the Psalter resounds sometimes with iambics, sometimes with Alcaics, sometimes chooses sonorous Sapphics, and sometimes even does not disdain catalectic feet. But in Deuteronomy and Isaiah, as in Solomon and Job, as Josephus and Origen have pointed out, there are hexameters and pentameters. Hence this art, though it may be secular, has nothing unworthy in itself; it should rather be learned as thoroughly as possible.

(b) Rhetoric. According to the statements of teachers, rhetoric is the art of using secular discourse effectively in the circumstances of daily life. From this definition rhetoric seems indeed to have reference merely to secular wisdom. Yet it is not foreign to ecclesiastical instruction. Whatever the preacher and herald of the divine law, in his instruction, brings forth in an eloquent and becoming manner; whatever in his written exposition he knows how to clothe in adequate and impressive language, he owes to his acquaintance with this art. Whoever at the proper time makes himself familiar with this art, and faithfully follows its rules in speaking and writing, needs not count it as something blameworthy. On the contrary, whoever thoroughly learns it so that he acquires the ability to proclaim God's word, performs a true work. Through rhetoric anything is proved true or false. Who would have the courage to maintain that the defenders of truth should stand weaponless in the presence of falsehood, so that those, who dare to represent false, should know how by their discourse to win the favor and sympathy of the hearers, and that, on the other hand, the friends of truth should not be able to do this; that those should know how to present falsehood briefly, clearly, and with the semblance of truth, and that the latter, on the contrary, should clothe the truth in such an exposition, that listening would become a burden, apprehension of the truth a weariness, and faith in the truth an impossibility?

(c) Dialectic. Dialectic is the science of the understanding, which fits us for investigations and definitions, for explanations, and for distinguishing the true from the false. It is the science of sciences. It teaches how to teach others; it teaches learning itself; in it the reason marks and manifests itself according to its nature, efforts, and activities; it alone is capable of knowing; it not only will, but can lead others to knowledge; its conclusions lead us to an apprehension of our being and of our origin; through it we apprehend the origin and activity of the good, of Creator and creature; it teaches us to discover the truth and to unmask falsehood; it teaches us to draw conclusions; it shows us what is valid in argument and what is not; it teaches us to recognize what is contrary to the nature of things; it teaches us to distinguish in