private physician, Kretzschmar, at his house, where the preparations and instruments were at hand. On the other three days of the week, mathematical drawing, by Professor Wölke. 3-5 French and universal history, by Professor Trapp, from Schröckh's Universal History, and Millot's Histoire Universelle, during five days. Saturday, a news-lecture, by Hauber, to make the elder pupils gradually acquainted with public transactions and remarkable occurrences.

5-6 Mathematics, by Busse, from Ebert's Further Introduction to the Philosophical and Mathematical Sciences, during the first three days of the week; in the other three, physics, from Erxleben's Natural Philosophy.

6-7 Knowledge of the heavens and earth, by Wölke, from Schmid's Book of the Celestial Bodies, twice a week; and the other four days, Greek, by Danner, from Rector Stroth's Chrestomathia Græca, Lucian's Timon, and Xenophon's Memorabilia.

For the Second Class of Elder Scholars

8-9 Similar to the studies of the first class; by Professor Trapp. 9-10 Riding and dancing, interchangeably with the first class. Arithmetic for some of them, with Professor Trapp.

10-11 Latin, with Hauber; from Basedow's Chrestomathia in historia antiqua.

11-12 Latin, with Danner; from Basedow's Chrestomathia.

1-2 Turning and planing; in alternation with the first class.

2-3 Drawing, with Doctor Samson. Some were instructed with the first class; and some study arithmetic, with Busse. 3-5 Same exercises as the first class.

5-6 Mathematics, with Danner, three days; on the other days, some were taught with the first class, and others received various kinds of private instruction.

6-7 English, from the Vicar of Wakefield, with Professor Trapp.

266. Basedow's Elementarwerk

The same year that Basedow was enabled to open his Philanthropinum at Dessau, he published two books upon which he had been at work for years, and the publication of which had been heralded throughout northern Europe. One was a Method-Book for Fathers and Mothers, and the second his famous Elementarwerk mit Kupfern, or illustrated Elementary Book for children. The latter was the first illustrated textbook prepared for the use of children since the publication (1654) of the Orbis Pictus (R. 221) of Comenius. It contained a hundred pictures, and was issued

in four volumes. Written in German, it was translated into Latin, and later into Russian, in which form it enjoyed an extended popularity.

It was intended to be a veritable encyclopædia for young people of all that was most worth knowing about natural objects, mor

FIG. 66. A LESSON IN NATURAL HISTORY
(Reproduced from the Elementarwerk of Basedow)

als, commerce, and social duties, and was claimed to provide "an incomparable method, founded on experience, of teaching children to read without weariness or loss of time." It became the Orbis Pictus of the eighteenth century for German lands.

The above illustration, reproduced from a copy of this celebrated work, is quite typical.

267. Pestalozzi explains his Work

(The Method; a Report by Pestalozzi. Aix-la-Chapelle, 1828)

One does not get a very good idea of Pestalozzi's work from his own writings. His impractical character showed in his attempts at writing as in his management of schools. Instead, it is from the writings of contemporaries that one gets the best picture of

his work and his ideas. His How Gertrude Teaches her Children is perhaps the best exponent of his work.

In 1800 Pestalozzi made a Report in writing to a Society of Friends of Education, which had been formed to support his efforts at the time of his return from Stanz to Burgdorf. In this he gave a systematic statement of his conceptions as to method in education. The Report remained unprinted until 1828, when it was edited and published. The opening pages state the general outline of his method, and are reproduced below; the remainder of the Report goes into detail as to the application.

I am trying to psychologize the instruction of mankind; I am trying to bring it into harmony with the nature of my mind, with that of my circumstances and my relations to others. I start from no positive form of teaching, as such, but simply ask myself:—

"What would you do, if you wished to give a single child all the knowledge and practical skill he needs, so that by wise care of his best opportunities he might reach inner content?"

I think to gain this end the human race needs exactly the same thing as the single child.

I think, further, the poor man's child needs a greater refinement in the methods of instruction than the rich man's child.

Nature, indeed, does much for the human race, but we have strayed away from her path. The poor man is thrust away from her bosom, and the rich destroy themselves both by rioting and by lounging on her overflowing breast.

The picture is severe. But ever since I have been able to see I have seen it so; and it is from this view that the impulse arises within me, not merely to plaster over the evils in schools which are enervating the people of Europe, but to cure them at their root.

But this can never be done without subordinating all forms of instruction to those eternal laws by which the human mind is raised from physical impressions on the senses to clear ideas.

I have tried to simplify the elements of all human knowledge according to these laws, and to put them into a series of typical examples that shall result in spreading a wide knowledge of Nature, general clearness of the most important ideas in the mind, and vigorous exercises of the chief bodily powers, even among the lowest classes.

I know what I am undertaking; but neither the difficulties in the way, nor my own limitations in skill and insight, shall hinder me from giving my mite for a purpose which Europe needs so much. And, gentlemen, in laying before you the results of those labors on which my life has been spent, I beg of you but one thing. It is this:- Separate those of my assertions that may be doubtful from those that are indis

putable. I wish to found my conclusions entirely upon complete convictions, or at least upon perfectly recognized premises.

The most essential point from which I start is this:

Sense-impression of Nature is the only true foundation of human instruction, because it is the only true foundation of human knowledge. . All that follows is the result of this sense-impression, and the process of abstraction from it. Hence in every case where this is imperfect, the result also will be neither certain, safe, nor positive; and in any case, where the sense-impression is inaccurate, deception and error follow.

I start from this point and ask: "What does Nature itself do in order to present the world truly to me, so far as it affects me? That is,

By what means does she bring the sense-impressions of the most important things around me to a perfection that contents me?" And I find, - She does this through my surroundings, my wants and my relations to others.

Through my surroundings she determines the kinds of sense-impressions I receive. Through my wants she stimulates my activities. Through my relations to others she widens my observation and raises it to insight and forethought. Through my surroundings, my wants, my relations to others, she lays the foundations of my knowledge, my work, and my right-doing.

And now I ask myself:-"What general method of the Art of Teaching has the experience of ages put into the hands of humanity to strengthen this influence of Nature in developing intelligence, energy, and virtue in our race?" And I find these methods are speech, the arts of drawing, writing, reckoning, and measuring.

And when I trace back all these elements of the human Art to their origin, I find it in the common basis of our mind, by means of which our understanding combines those impressions which the senses have received from Nature, and represents them as wholes, that is, as concepts.

And when I ask again: What are the unmistakable consequences of thus rudely despising these laws, I cannot conceal from myself the physical atrophy, one-sidedness, warped judgment, superficiality, and presumptuous vanity that characterize the masses in this generation, are the necessary consequences of despising these laws, and of the isolated, unpsychological, baseless, unorganized, unconnected teaching, which our poor race has received in our lower schools.

Then the problem I have to solve is this:- How to bring the elements of every art into harmony with the very nature of my mind, by following the psychological mechanical laws by which my mind rises. from physical sense-impressions to clear ideas.

Nature has two principal and general means of directing human activity towards the cultivation of the arts, and these should be employed,

if not before, at least side by side with any particular means. They are singing, and the sense of the beautiful.

With song the mother lulls her babe to sleep; but here, as in every thing else, we do not follow the law of Nature. Before the child is a year old, the mother's song ceases; by that time she is, as a rule, no longer a mother to the weaned child. For him, as for all others, she is only a distracted, over-burdened woman. Alas! that it is so. Why has not the art of ages taught us to join the nursery lullabies to a series of national songs, that should rise in the cottages of the people from the gentle cradle song to the sublime hymn of praise? But I cannot fill this gap. I can only point it out.

It is the same with the sense of the beautiful. All Nature is full of grand and lively sights, but Europe has done nothing to awaken in the poor a sense for these beauties, or to arrange them in such a way as to produce a series of impressions, capable of developing this sense. The sun rises for us in vain; in vain for us he sets. In vain for us do wood and meadow, mountain and valley spread forth their innumerable charms. They are nothing to us.

Here, again, I can do nothing; but if ever popular education should cease to be the barbarous absurdity it now is, and put itself into harmony with the real needs of our nature, this want will be supplied.

I leave these means of directing the Art generally, and turn to the forms by which special means of education, speaking, reading, drawing, and writing should be taught.

268. A Visit to Pestalozzi at Yverdon

(Griscom, John, A Year in Europe, vol. 1, pp. 415-20. New York, 1823; 2 vols.) In 1818-19 Professor John Griscom (1774-1852), manager of a private school in New York City, and who later became a professor in Queen's (now Rutgers) College in New Jersey, visited Europe and made a study of the schools, colleges, and charitable institutions of Great Britain, France, Sweden, Italy, and Holland, and on his return published his observations in A Year in Europe (1819). This book had an important influence in the United States on the development of reformatory schools and institutions for the training of defectives. The following extract from the report of his visit to Pestalozzi's school at Yverdon gives an insight into the work and personal side of the school.

Breakfast finished, our first and chief concern here was to visit the celebrated Institute of Pestalozzi. This establishment occupies a large castle the use of which was granted to Pestalozzi by the Canton of Berne, when the town of Yverdon was included in that Canton, and the government of the Pays de Vaud, to which it now belongs, continues