human beings (sympathy), instruction must be brought to bear on both in order that it may correct and complete them. ... To place all in balanced action is to create the perfect manysided culture of the mind. The course of instruction is determined accordingly. It will be analytical in so far as it separates and dissects, moreover corrects and completes; in it the chief work will fall on the pupil. Or it will be synthetical in so far as the elements are given and combined; in this the teacher will determine the order of connection. Both analytical and synthetical instruction are classified in conformity with the six classes of interest, and the two must naturally support each other. Instruction must universally point out, connect, teach, philosophise; the first is productive of Clearness, the second of Association, the third leads to System, the last to Method. In matters appertaining to sympathy, instruction is observing, continuous, elevating, active in the sphere of reality. And these conditions are again in like manner productive in order of clearness, association, system, and method. 3. Discipline. Discipline, the third division of education, consists in direct action on the child, with intent to form him. This cannot be accomplished, however, by merely exciting the feelings. Through the influence of discipline, the circle of thought itself must receive additions, and the desires be transformed into action. Therefore its work is indirect, so far as it prepares the way for instruction to determine the circle of thought, and direct so far as it transforms the contents of that circle into action, and thus lays the foundation for character. The aim of discipline is moral strength of character, that is steadfastness in progress to virtue. Character consists in uniformity and firmness of will, as these are exhibited both in what the man will, and what he will not do.... The attitude which the teacher assumes toward the pupil is the most important aid to discipline — his expressed satisfaction or dissatisfaction, freedom granted or restraint imposed, etc., throughout which, the pupil's susceptibility is to be observed, made use of carefully, and not over-stimulated. The book on discipline closes with suggestions as to its method of procedure. It is the formation of character by the light of psychology. Special stress is laid on the importance of keeping the mind as a whole tranquil and clear, so that the æsthetic judgments may form, and the character become moral. In proportion as the pupil has gained trust in his opinions and principles, discipline must retreat and allow room for self-education. 357. Herbart and Modern Psychology (Titchener, E. B., in Journal of Education. Boston, May 19, 1898) The following is not only a good brief statement of the origin of modern psychology, but also a good brief presentation of the larger stages in the history of the progress of science. The history of science is a history of differentiation. When the human race first began to reflect upon the universe, it took the universe in the large; early Greek "science" is cosmic philosophy. Little by little, the sciences have split off from philosophy, far more recently than one is apt to believe. Descartes (1596–1650) included both medicine and mechanics under philosophy; Wolff (1679-1754) thought that physics was as much a part of philosophy as was empirical psychology. Even to-day we find physical apparatus catalogued under the title of "philosophical instruments." The first thing that a science has to do, then, in order to be a science, is to shake itself free of philosophy, of speculation about the ultimate nature of the universe. It must assert its independence, and declare itself lord and master over a certain range of facts. But many a "science" has made this assertion, and yet fallen back again under philosophical dominion. If the revolt is to be successful, it must be carried out with method. Method, a definite and fruitful way of arranging and discovering facts, is the conditio sine qua non of a science. The nineteenth century has witnessed a long series of victories for science over philosophy. We have the new biology of Darwin; the new physiology of Ludwig; the new pathology of Virchow; the new chemistry of Liebig; the new physics of Maxwell and Helmholtz and Thomson. There are some bodies of knowledge- ethics, æsthetics, sociology, for instance that have not yet succeeded in freeing themselves from metaphysical influence; but no one can doubt that they are well on their way to become sciences. And the place of philosophy has undergone a corresponding change. So far from dictating to science what it shall teach and what it shall refrain from teaching, metaphysics now follows in the train of the special sciences, and shapes its own doctrines in accordance with scientific results. Psychology has played its part in this revolution. At the beginning of the century it was an integral part of philosophy; at the end it is a science of the sciences, a "laboratory" science. Let us compare the two points of view for a moment, and see precisely wherein the difference consists: The change from philosophy to science was mediated very largely by the work of one man Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841). Herbart dealt the power theory of mind its deathblow. So far, he may be accounted a "new" psychologist. Nevertheless, he still based his psychology directly upon metaphysics. The system of competing ideas which he substituted for the older faculties is meaningless and unsubstantial unless it is backed by his metaphysical system. The "new psychology" proper, psychology as natural science, is the combined work of four other men: Hermann Lotze (1817-1881), Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795-1878), Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887), and Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832). 358. Froebel's Educational Views (Marenholtz-Bülow, Baroness Bertha von, Child and Child Nature. Froebel's writings are so mystical and religious in character that they convey but little idea of the kindergarten as it is to-day developed, and the best conception as to his educational theory is found in the writings of those who have interpreted him, rather than in his own books. His greatest interpreter and propagandist was the Baroness Bertha von Marenholtz-Bülow (-Wendhausen) (1810-1893), who expounded his ideas in the leading countries of Europe, and, after 1870, in a training college in Dresden. The following extract from her "Contributions to the Understanding of Froebel's Educational Theories" gives a fairly good idea as to his educational ideas. "The purpose of nature is development. The purpose of the spiritual world is culture. The problem of this world is an educational one, the solution of which is proceeding according to fixed divine laws." Froebel. EDUCATION is emancipation - the setting free of the bound-up forces of the body and the soul. The inner conditions necessary to this setting free or development all healthily-born children bring with them into the world, the outer ones must be supplied through education. LAW OF DEVELOPMENT Everything in the kingdom of nature, however different the stages of progress may be, comes under one universal law, and development means the same as progress according to law, systematic going on from the unformed to the formed, from chaos to cosmos. And as does the physical so also must the spiritual development proceed in systematic fashion, or education would be impossible. For what we call education is influencing the development of the child, guiding and regulating it as well in its spiritual as in its physical aspect. a But how common a thing it is to hear people maintain that during them instinctive, unconscious period of a child's life, it should be left to fol-P low its impulses entirely, and no attempt made to deal with it systematically. But, as the soul undoubtedly begins to unfold and form itself in the period of unconsciousness in the same systematic manner as in later periods, any such assertion must be erroneous and based on false premises. Spiritual development must proceed in as regular and systematic a course as organic development, seeing that the physical organs are intended to correspond as implicitly to the soul, which they serve, as cause corresponds to effect. Psychology has determined the order of the development of the soul, as has physiology that of the circulation of the blood, but the former science has chiefly concerned itself with the already more or less formed soul of the adult, which, through self-will and voluntary deflection from the path of order, is always to a certain extent the slave of arbitrariness and the growth of the soul in the period of childhood has been little studied or observed. Froebel used to say constantly when lecturing: "If you want to understand clearly the regular working of nature you must observe the common wild plants, many of which are designated as weeds: it is seen more clearly in these than in the complexity of cultivated plants." For this purpose he grew different species of wild plants in pots. The same holds true of the human plant. The young child's soul, while yet in its primitive and instinctive stage, without forethought and without artificiality, exhibits to the really seeing and understanding observer the systematic regularity, the logic of nature's dealings in her development process, in spite of the variety of individual endowment. CORRESPONDENCES INDIVIDUAL THE RACE Froebel says: "There is a continuous connection in the spiritual life as a whole, as there is universal harmony in nature." And certainly it cannot be otherwise: the eternal law of order, which reigns throughout the universe, must also determine the development of the human soul. But the educator who would supply the human bud in right. manner with light and warmth, rain and dew, and so induce it to emancipate itself from its fettered condition, and through the unfolding of all its slumbering forces to blossom into worthy life, must not only understand the law but must also possess the means of acting in accordance with the law: i.e., his method of education must follow the same systematic plan as nature does, and the outward practical means must correspond. No one will dispute the assertion that instruction is only worthy of the name when it is methodical. Instruction of such kind is a branch of education: but branch and stem spring from the same root. However much may have been done, from the days of antiquity up to the present day, to improve educational and instructional systems, and to adapt them more closely to the natural process of development, and thus attain the result aimed at — knowledge — in the best and quickest manner, the laws of development of the infant mind are, nevertheless, still veiled in obscurity. No infallible chart has yet been found, which, as the magnet to the mariner, will show the educator invariably the right direction to steer in, spite of all ebbs and flows, spite of all the thousand different courses that each vessel, each character, according to its individual destination, has to strike into. But so long as some such fixed method of education remains undiscovered, so long will even the best education be more or less an arbitrary work. It was also Pestalozzi's chief endeavor to discover and apply that which he called "the principle of the organic," and to him, and his educational forerunners, are we indebted for our first knowledge of the course of child development, and for the means by which education and instruction have been more systematically organized. Without their preliminary efforts Froebel might not, perhaps, have discovered the method whereby he built upon the foundations laid by them, and brought their, and especially Pestalozzi's, practical endeavors to completion. In like manner will Froebel's successors be called upon to develop further what he has laid the foundation of. In one of his letters to me, Froebel says: "As motion in the universe depends on the law of gravitation, so do movements in the life of humanity depend on the law of the unity of life." And further: "As the laws of the fruit are developments of the laws of the flower, and the laws of the flower developments of the laws of the bud, and the laws of the bud, flower, and fruit, are at the same time one with the laws of the whole tree or plant; so are the laws of the development of the spiritual life higher outcomes, or developments, of the laws of the solar and planetary system of the universe. Were this not the case man could not understand the latter, for he can only understand that which is homogeneous to him. And, according to this, the laws of the development of life, in the region of the spiritual, must be apprehended, demonstrated, and built upon, in the same manner as the laws of the formation of the world. It will be the work of the Kindergarten to point out the application of these laws, as one stage of progressive human cultivation." Froebel's aim and efforts may, I think, be summed up thus: he was striving to hit on a regular course or method of education, corresponding to the method of instruction long ago established by pedagogic science. Whether it has happened to Froebel by a lucky hit to give a new basis to education, experience and the application and carrying out of his method must show. A written exposition can do no more than |