a

enteenth century. Gregorius Horstius superior to Apollonius himself. In 1664, and Juncker relate that a belief prevailed he was honored with a pension from among the people of Germany, that, by Louis XIV, and, in 1666, the grand duke presenting gifts, and dancing before the of Tuscany, who employed him both in image of St. Vitus, on his festival, in May, public works and in negotiation, gave him they should live in health and safety dur- the title of his first mathematician. In ing the ensuing year; and that, for this 1669, he was chosen to fill a chair in the purpose, they repaired to a chapel dedi- royal academy of sciences of Paris, which cated to their saint, where they danced honor induced him to finish three books night and day, until they were seized of his Divination of Aristeus, and address with delirium, and fell down in a sort of them to the king of France (Divinatio in trance.

Aristæum, 1701). He died in 1703, in the Vives, Giovanni Ludovico, one of the eighty-first or eighty-second year of his revivers of literature, was born at Valen- age. Fontenelle speaks warmly of the tia, in Spain, in 1492, and studied at Paris integrity and simplicity of manners of and Louvain. He then visited England, Viviani, who composed several mathehaving previously become one of the first matical treatises in the Latin and Italian fellows of Corpus Christi college, Oxford. languages, besides those already alluded He was patronised by Catharine of Arra- to, the principal of which is entitled gon, and, in 1522, dedicated his Commen- Enodatio Problematum (1677), comprising tary upon St. Augustine's De Civitate Dei the solution of three problems which had to king Henry VIII. He was also ap- been submitted to all the mathematicians pointed to instruct the princess Mary in of Europe. polite literature and the Latin language. VIVIANITE. (See Iron, vol. vii, p. During his residence at Oxford, he was 69.) admitted doctor of laws, and acquired VIZIER is a title of honor with the much favor with Henry VIII; but, ven- Turks, belonging to all the pachas of turing to write against his divorce from three tails (i. e. the highest pachas). BeCatharine, he was disgraced and impris- sides these, there are at Constantinople oped. On regaining his liberty, he re- six viziers, called viziers of the bench paired to Brussels, where he married, and (i. e. of the council of state), because they remained, for the rest of his life, as a have seats in the divan. Men acquainted teacher of the belles lettres. He died in with the laws, and such as have already 1541. His works were printed at Basle held offices of importance, are chosen for in 1555, in 2 vols., folio; but this collection this station; but they have no decisive does not include his Commentary on St. voice in this council

, and cannot give Augustine, which was esteemed too bold their opinion until the grand vizier asks and free by the Louvain doctors. Among it. They have small salaries, but are his works are De prima Philosophia ; De privileged to wear a turban like that of Explanatione Essentiarum ; De Censura the grand viziers, this being a mark of Veri; De Initiis, Sectis et Laudibus Phi- high distinction with the Turks. They losophiæ ; and De corruptis Artibus et tra- can also affix the name of the sultan to dendis Disciplinis.

the orders sent into the provinces. The Viviani, Vincent, a celebrated Italian grand vizier (vizier azem) stands high mathematician, was born at Florence, in above these. He is the representative of 1022. From the sixteenth year of bis the sultan, conducts the deliberations of age, he pursued the study of geometry the divan, and decides alone. He receives with such diligence and success, that the a seal at the time of his appointment, on great Galilei gave him the advantage of which the sultan's name is engraved, and his own instructions, and treated him as a which he must always wear on his bosom. son. After Galilei's death, he undertook By this seal, he is authorized to rule, with the restoration of the five books of Aris- absolute power, in the name of the grand tæus, a celebrated Grecian mathematician, sultan. entitled De Locis solidis, which were lost, VLIESSINGEN. (See Flushing.) with the exception of the names of the Vocal Music; music produced by the propositions. This labor he, however, dis- human voice (q. v.) alone, or accompanied continued, in order to restore the lost fifth by instruments. It is contradistinguished book of the Conic Sections of Apollonius. from instrumental music (q. v.), which is This work he published in 1659, in folio, produced by instruments alone. The comunder the title De Maximis et Minimiś poser of such music must have a thorGeometrica Divinatio in quintum Conico- ough knowledge of voices, and their murum Apollonii Pergai, which was esteemed sical effect, their power, and the peculiari

ties by which the human voice differs so nant, and the larynx is double, and some decidedly from instruments. Vocal mu- of which (the singing birds) have lamelsic has many advantages over instrument- læ in the bronchiæ, capable of vibration, al, in the fine blending of the tones, in its the voice is fitted for the most varied endless variety of intonation and expres- sounds. The mammalia possess but one sion, and in the support which it derives larynx; and with them the sound is from its connexion with words. The formed by a strong expiration, whilst different forms of vocal music are, the air, the ligaments of the glottis (according to arietta, cavatina, and the like; recitativo, the opinion of Ferrein) vibrate like the duetto, terzetto, quartetto, &c.; the cho- strings of an instrument, and produce varus, the song, hymn, &c.; the opera, ora- rious sounds, as they are more or less torio, cantata, &c. (See Music, division tense; or (according to the opinion of History of; see also Voice.)

Dodart and Cuvier) form certain cavities, VOGLER, George Joseph, a distinguished in which the tones are produced, as in practical and theoretical musician, was wind instruments; or, perhaps, operate in born at Würzburg, in 1749. He studied both ways at the same time. But the law, but early showed great talent for length of the windpipe, which can be inplaying on the organ, and for composing. creased or shortened, and the magnitude The elector of the Palatinate, Charles of the lungs in proportion to the width of Theodore, sent him to Italy, about 1773, the glottis, also contribute much, at least to study music. In about three years, he to the strength of the tone. The voice, returned to Manheim, the residence of his however, is more influenced by the epiprincely patron. In the year 1780, and glottis, by the greater or less length of the the following years, he travelled in Ger- canal which extends from the glottis to many, France, Holland, Sweden, Eng-. the opening of the mouth, and by all the land, Spain, and (as Gerber says) even in voluntary modifications which can be Africa and Greece. In 1786, he was ap- there given to the tone. The influence pointed chapel-master to the king of Swe- of the nerves of the voice is also to be den. In 1790, he was in London, where remarked: if the nerve is cut on one side, his performance on the organ was heard the voice becomes weaker, and if cut on with great pleasure. He delivered lec- both sides, ceases entirely. The positive tures on music in Stockholm and in pole of the galvanic battery affecting the Prague. In 1807, he was appointed chapel- nerve produces high, the negative pole master to the grand duke of Hesse-Darm- deep, hoarse tones. Liscovius,

in his Thestadt, and remained in Darmstadt until ory of the Voice (in German, Leipsic, his death, in 1814. He invented a new 1814), maintains that the voice is proinstrument, called orchestrion, in which duced by the pressure of the breath the tone was determined in quite a new through the narrow opening of the windway, by the increase and diminution of pipe, in a similar way as the tones are the wind; and the sound was increased by produced by the mouth in whistling. Aca suspended copper vessel. He also in- cording to Gottfried Weber (Cæcilia, vol. vented a mode of simplifying the con- i, p. 92), the organ of voice, as a soundstruction of organs. He wrote various ing membrane, or lamella, acts like the works on music, and likewise composed tongue-work in the organ. The uvula several pieces for the theatre, sympho- has, of course, considerable influence in nies, &c.

producing the tones, and is subject to Voice is the body of sounds produced diseases in singers, orators, and others acby the organs of 'respiration, especially customed to great exertion of the vocal the larynx of men or animals. It can, organs.* The voice of men and animals therefore, only be found in animals in is a very interesting subject of inquiry. which the system of respiration is devel- The tones by which animals express oped, and the lungs and larynx actually their feelings, the sweet and powerful melexist. Many insects intentionally produce odies of the small birds, the tones which a noise by the motion of their wings, convey the ideas and emotions of rational which takes the place of a voice, but man, and furnish his noblest music, are cannot be called by this name. The well fitted to awaken the curiosity of the fishes, being deprived of lungs, and breath- naturalist, physiologist and philosopher.ing through gills, are dumb; but the am- For some remarks on the organs of the phibious animals, which have the lungs and larynx in an imperfect state, have,

* See Magendie's Report on Doctor Bennati's therefore, a limited voice. In birds, how? (physician to the Italian opera in Paris) Memoir

on the Diseases of the trula, read March 7, ever, in which the lungs are so predomi- 1831, in the French academy.

Thus any

roice in animals and men, we refer the consonants, we remark, that while any reader to Blumenbach's Manual of continued or vowel sound is passing Comparative Anatomy (translated by W. through the mouth, if it be interrupted, Lawrence, revised by Coulson, London, whether by a complete closure of the 1827). Respecting the sounds of human mouth, or only by an approximation of language, by the various combinations of parts, the effect on the ear of a listener is which such a variety of words is pro- so exceedingly different, according to the duced, we will add a few remarks. Be- situation in the mouth where the intersides the lungs, the windpipe, &c., the ruption occurs, and to the manner in finely-arched roof of the mouth, and the which it occurs, that many most distinct pliability of the lips (enabling us to give modifications thence arise. a great variety of forms to the mouth, continued sound, as a, if arrested by a which are almost the sole means of giving closure of the mouth at the external contheir peculiar character to the different fine or lips, is heard to terminate with the vowels), are of the greatest importance. modification expressed by the letter p; Under the articles on the separate letters that is, the syllable ap has been prothe reader will find an account of the way nounced: but if, under similar circumin which the sounds represented by them stances, the closure be made at the back respectively are produced. “The modi- of the mouth, by the tongue rising against fications of voice, easily made (says Mr. the palate, we hear the modification exAmoit, in his Elements of Physics), and pressed by the letterk, and the syllable ak easily distinguishable by the ear," and, has been pronounced: and if the closure therefore, fit elements of language, are be made in the middle of the mouth, hy about fifty in number; but no single lan- the tip of the tongue rising against the guage contains more than about half of roof, the sound expressed by t is prothem. They are divisible into two very duced, and the syllable at is heard : and distinct and nearly equal classes, called so of others. It is to be remarked, also, rowels (q. v.) and consonants.” (q. v.) In that the ear is equally sensible of the pethe article Consonant, the natural division culiarities, whether the closure precedes of words is shown to cease with syllables: the continued sound or follows it; that is they are one sound, and the division into to say, whether the syllables pronounced vowels and consonants, ingenious and use- are ap, at, ak, or pa, ta, ka. The modififul as it is, does not, in fact, exist to the cations of which we are now speaking degree which we usually take for granted, appear, then, not to be really sounds, but from the circumstance of considering only manners of beginning and ending them as totally distinct from early child- sounds; and it is because they can thus hood. Consonants are, generally speak- be perceived only in connexion with voing, only the beginning or end of vowels; cal sounds, that they are called consoi. e. the mouth must in some way be nants."—We refer the reader to Mr. Aropened to produce a vowel sound, and nott's work, for further remarks on the closed to conclude the vowel sounds; and pronunciation of the various vowels and this mode of opening or closing gives rise consonants, and add here only his table to that which we call a consonant. The of articulations, in which, if we consider circumstance that consonants cannot be the perpendicular line on the left as the pronounced without the aid of vowels, opening of the mouth, and the line on the shows, that the strict division into vowels right as the back part of the mouth, the and consonants is one which nature has four divisions indicate the places where not made. Mr. Arnott says (p. 438 of the the letters are pronounced.-See the artiAmerican ed.): "To explain the second cles on the letters and on writing. class of the modifications of sound, called