the former, in six annual instalments of Sarrans' Mémoires sur Lafayette (2 vols., 4,166,666 francs each, in full for all claims Paris, 1832).–At this distance from the of the citizens of the U. States for unlaw- scene of action, we cannot pretend to ful seizures, captures, sequestrations, or give any authentic information upon these destructions of their vessels, cargoes, or and more recent transactions. We will other property, by that government; the merely add here, that, after protracted former engaging to pay, on its part, the negotiations with the different parties, the sum of 1,500,000 francs, in six annual in- king did not reorganize the cabinet until stalments, in full of all claims presented the end of October, when it was thus hy France on behalf of her citizens. formed:-Marshal Soult, president of the Austrian troops having entered the Ro- council (in place of Périer) and minister man territory in January, for the purpose of war; the duke de Broglie, minister of of maintaining the papal power, the ex- foreign affairs, in place of Sébastiani, istence of which was threatened by the whose infirm health rendered his retiresubjects, a French force was sent to Italy, ment necessary; Thiers, minister of the which occupied Ancona, February 22; interior, in place of Montalivet; M. Hubut this movement, which bore a men- man succeeds baron Louis in the departacing aspect, did not disturb the peace of ment of finance, and Guizot, Girod de Europe. In the end of March, the chol- l'Ain in that of public instruction. M. era made its appearance in France, and, Barthe, amiral de Rigny, and count early in April, the prime minister was d'Argont, retain respectively the seals, attacked by it. His death, which took and the portfolios of the marine, and of place on the sixteenth of May, made no public works. We have now to give change in the spirit of the adninistration, some account of the state of French which has, up to the present time, been affairs in Algiers. On receiving intelliconducted on the principles professed by gence of the overthrow of the old dynasCasimir Périer on the thirteenth of ty, the army in Algiers immediately March, and carried into practice by him declared its adhesion to the new order while he continued at the head of the of things; and, on the seventeenth of government. The department of the in- August, the tri-colored flag already terior was given to M. Montalivet; but waved over the Casauba and the forts. no president of the council was named. General Clausel was appointed to the While it is impossible to deny to the ad- government of Algiers, in the room of ministration of M. Périer the praise of count Bourmont; and public opinion vigor in maintaining order, it is to be re- was pronounced in favor of the pergretted that it was not conducted on more manent occupation and colonization of liberal and popular principles. The in- the Algerine territory. General Claucessant prosecutions of the press, the sel was instructed, therefore, to reduce great number of trials for political of- to obedience all the provinces dependent fences, and the rigid adherence to a con- upon Algiers, and to promote commerce servative policy, in a country in which so and agriculture, by encouraging the setmuch was to be done to establish a ra- tlement of European emigrants. A tional, yet full and fair degree of liberty, model farm was also instituted to teach cannot be too severely condemned. The the inhabitants the best mode of culticlose of the sessions of the chambers was vation; and land was sold to settlers for hastened by the alarm excited by the two and a half francs an The violence of the disease in Paris, and they only commercial marts in the territory were soon after prorogued. Paris was, were Algiers, Oran, Bova, and Bougia or soon after, again made the scene of Boujeia: the three last were yet to be bloodshed. On occasion of the funeral occupied. In Oran (with 20,000 inhab-, of general Lamarque, June 5, the military itants), which had been restored to the having attempted to disperse the crowd, dey of Algiers by Spain, in 1791, busiskirmishing continued for several days, ness was chiefly carried on by Spanand the city was declared to be under iards. Bona, with a population of 8000 martial law. The populace were not inhabitants, situated near the ruins of overpowered without much slaughter, Hippo Regius, and Bougia, forty leagues and several distinguished men of the east from Algiers, belonged to the mouvement party were arrested and tried province of Constantine (with a capital by a court-martial; but the court of of the same name, twenty days march cassation pronounced their trial to be from Algiers), which had not yet been illegal.-See, on this and other subjects reduced. Upon this long tract of country relating to France since the revolution, were neither towns nor villages ; and it acre. tion of Algiers had sunk to 20,000 souls, of whom 5000 were Jews. The French government, therefore, at length, determined to try the effect of a new organization of the administration of the colony: the military and civil authorities were intrusted to distinct officers. On the first of December, the duke of Rovigo (Savary) was accordingly appointed to the military command, and baron Pichon was placed at the head of the civil administration, as civil intendant of the colony. The whole coast, from Constantine to Oran, was subjected to the government of Algiers; and the fortifications of this city itself were to be strengthened by the erection of seven new block-houses. Thus the determination of the French government to retain permanent possession of the new colony, was no longer doubtful, and will certainly be accomplished, unless the state of affairs in Europe should compel France to recall her troops and abandon the African shore. In the beginning of 1832, the number of European colonists in Algiers was about 3000; and towards the close of January, a newspaper, in French and Arabic, was established, under the title of Moniteur Algérien. Among the numerous works to which the occupation of Algiers has given rise in France, we mention Renaudot's Tableau du Royaume et de la Ville d'Alger (fifth edition, 1831); Fernel's Campagne d'Afrique en 1830 (second edition, 1832); Juchereau de St. Denys's Considérations statistiques, historiques, militaires, et politiques, sur la Régence d'Alger (with a map, 1831). FREESTONE. (See Sandstone.) FULMINATING GOLD. (See Gold.) FULMINATING POWDERS. (See Mercury, and Silver.) FUNDI. (See Fondi.) (See Stoves.) FOR WARMING HOUSES. FURZE is accidentally placed before Fur Trade. FYEN. (See Funen.) G. was therefore necessary, if an expedition were sent out, that it should carry all its supplies. The march led by footpaths over barren mountains, through various tribes, which had maintained their independence even under the regency. Under these circumstances, Algiers could not be made the base of operations, which could be fixed only at Bona or Stora. The beylic of Bona was therefore occupied, and general Clausel also made an incursion into the southern province of Titteri, where he passed the Atlas, and defeated the troops of the bey, on the twenty-first of November. On the twenty-second, Mediah, the ancient Lamida, was occupied, and, on the twenty-third, the bey gave in his submission. But the people were by no means subjected. The bey of Titteri was sent to France, when a pension of 12,000 francs was settled upon him; and the bey of Oran was likewise deposed, and sent to Alexandria. Still, however, the war continued. Mediah was evacuated, Oran abandoned, and it was said that the city of Algiers alone would be retained. But Southern France particularly remonstrated against the abandonment of a colony so important for commerce. General Clausel now organized a corps of irregular Arabian troops (zuaves), and determined to give the provinces of Constautine and Oran to two Tunisian princes, who should be tributary to France. But the government was dissatisfied with his measures, and, in February, 1831, declared the treaty which he had made with Tunis, to carry this plan into effect (December 18), to be null, on the ground that he had exceeded his powers. General Berthezène was also appointed to the command of the troops, although Clausel was allowed to retain the title of governor of the colony. The warlike operations were continued during the ensuing spring and summer, and several expeditions were made into the interior, to chastise hostile tribes of Arabs, Bedouins and Cabyles, or Berbers; but, on the approach of the French troops, these wild hordes would desert their villages, and disperse, and then, again collecting, hang upon their rear on their return. In October, Bona fell into the hands of the Cabyles; the colony was supported at the expense of 1,000,000 francs a month, and, instead of proving a granary for Southern France, as had been anticipated, was obliged to draw all its supplies from that country; and the government found itself compelled to support the emigrants who had settled there. In November, the popula GALENA. (See Lead.) GALLEASSES. (See Galley.) GARNISHMENT. (See Attachment, For eign.) GARTER SNAKE. (See Serpent.) GEORGIA BARK. (See Pinkneya Pubescens.) GEORGIUM SIDUS. (See Herschel.) GERMAINE, lord George. (See Sackville, George.) GHOSTS. (See Visions.) GIAMSCHID. (See Jemshid.) GIOVIO, Paolo. (See Jovius.) GIRARD, Stephen. This singular individual has rendered himself a subject of public interest by his large bequests for public purposes, and deserves a place among those remarkable men who have achieved great things with small means. He was born in the French city of Bordeaux, in the year 1750, of poor parents, and seems to have received no other education than what is implied in the fact, that he learned to read and write while a child. During his long residence in this country, at a later period of his life, he never acquired a sufficient knowledge of the English language to speak it correctly; but the native vigor of his mid supplied, in a great measure, those deficiencies which, to most others, would have been an insuperable bar to success in the world. Among the events of his early youth, he used to speak of the ridicule to which a deformity in one eye exposed him, as a source of great suffering. At the age of ten or twelve years, he went to the West Indies in the capacity of a cabin-boy, and afterwards sailed from New York in the same humble station. At this time, his deportment was highly exemplary; and the master of the vessel under whom he sailed was so much pleased with his fidelity and industry, that he soon after gave him the command of a small vessel, in which Girard made several voyages to New Orleans and other ports. His great frugality, and his success in such trifling speculations as he could then engage in, put it in his power, before a long time, to become part owner of a vessel, in which he continued to sail as master. In 1769, Girard, then only nineteen years of age, established himself in Philadelphia; and, in the course of the next year, he married Polly Lum, the pretty daughter of a calker, then in her seventeenth year, and a servant girl in his neighborhood. This marriage, however, did not prove a happy one, owing to the asperity and violence of Girard's temper; and, at a later period, he sued for a divorce from his wife, who was confined in a lunatic hospital during the last twenty-five years of her life (1790 -1815). She bore him only one child, who died in infancy. On the breaking out of the revolutionary war, his commercial operations being interrupted, he took a little shop, and followed the trade of bottler and grocer for several years, when he again entered the West India trade; and from this time (1780) he may be considered a rich man. Though Girard was, in general, morose in his manners, and harsh in his disposition, yet he distinguished himself during the prevalence of the yellow fever in Philadelphia, in 1793, by his active benevolence in attending the sick; and on all occasions he manifested a singular readiness to afford medical advice and personal assistance to such sufferers as came under his notice, while, at the same time, he would never relieve the distresses of his friends or relations, whether of body or of the purse, by pecuniary aid. His next commercial enterprises were in the East India trade; and, as is well known, he was subsequently engaged in banking till the period of his death, in 1831. The following description of his person and manners is taken from the Biography of Stephen Girard, written by S. Simpson (Philadelphia, 1832):-Few men made so bad a first impression upon the spectator as Stephen Girard. His person was altogether unprepossessing. His humble and vulgar exterior, his cold, abstracted and taciturn habits, did not fail to excite in the mind of the superficial observer a feeling approaching to contempt. He resembled a short and square-built old sailor. His wall-eye and the contrast exhibited between his person, his habiliments and his fortune, contributed to complete a picture of the most repulsive kind. He was partially deaf in one ear, and his conversation was disfigured by a broken French dialect. He spoke, with few exceptions, only upon business; and then never said more than was necessary to the proper understanding of his subject. When excited to anger, however, especially among his dependants and workmen, his volubility of tongue, though not couched in the most refined language, was without a parallel. But to compensate for these ebullitions of temper towards his inferiors, he had the art of conciliating them by the most fascinating displays of occasional good nature, which impressed them with the most devoted readiness to serve him. His habits of attending business were extremely regular in his counting-house, and generally so in his bank. On discount days, he almost always entered the bank between nine and eleven o'clock in winter, and six and nine in summer. It was his custom, during the spring and summer months, to spend an hour or two every morning in a garden attached to his bank, where he employed himself in pruning his vines, nursing his fig-tree and dressing his shrubs. He was buried in a Roman Catholic burial-ground, but without any religious ceremonies. His fortune was probably the largest ever left by any individual in the U. States, and is estimated to amount to about eleven or twelve million dollars. It was disposed of in the following manner by his will:To the Pennsylvania hospital (subject to an annuity of $200 to a female slave, whom he sets free), $30,000; to the Pennsylvania institution for the deaf and dumb, $20,000; to the orphan asylum of Philadelphia, $10,000; to the controllers of the public schools of Philadelphia,$10,000; to the city corporation, to be invested, and the interest to be applied annually to the purchase of fuel for the poor, $10,000; to the society of ship-masters for the relief of distressed masters, their widows and children, $10,000; to the grand lodge of Pennsylvania, $20,000; for a school for poor white children in Passayunk, where his farm was situated, $6000; legacies to individuals, about $120,000; several annuities, amounting to about $4000; to the city of New Orleans, 1000 acres of improved land in Louisiana, and one third of 207,000 acres of unimproved land in the same state, the remaining two thirds being bequeathed to the city of Philadelphia (the value of this land is about $500,000); to the city of Philadelphia, stock in the Schuylkill navigation company, $110,000; for the erection and endowment of a college for poor white male orphans, the sum of $2,000,000, with provision that, should this amount prove insufficient, the necessary sum shall be taken from the residuary fund; to Philadelphia, for certain city improvements, to be invested and the interest annually applied, $500,000; to the commonwealth of Pennsylvania, to be applied to internal improvements by canals, $300,000; to the city of Philadelphia, all his remaining real and personal estate (no part of the former to be sold), estimated at about $8,000,000, in aid of the orphan's college, if needed, improvements of the city, and the relief of taxes. GLASS SNAKE. (See Serpent.) GOITRE (bronchocele); probably a corruption of the Latin guttur (throat), called by the Germans, kropf (throat); a tumor situated in front of the windpipe, and formed by the swelling of the thyroid gland. (See Windpipe.) The goitre is endemic in the valleys of the Alps, and seems to be caused principally by the heat, moisture, and stagnation of the air, produced by the narrow and winding shape of the valleys. It has also been attributed, by some, to the use of coarse and indigestible food, of water charged with lime, and obtained from the melting of snow; but this opinion is now generally abandoned. The disease is sometimes transmitted from the parent to the child, and, when it is hereditary, often exists from birth: when not so, it begins to show itself towards the age of from seven to ten years. It sometimes makes its appearance at a much later period of life, in persons who take up their residence late in regions where it is endemic. Instances of the disease have also been known in other districts; but they are not common. The habit of carrying burdens on the head, violent efforts of any sort, the indulgence of violent passions, childbirth, &c., sometimes appear to be the occasion of its developement. The causes of the goitre are, for the most part, the same as those of cretinism, and it is often found to afflict the same individuals; but the diseases are not to be confounded. (See Cretinism.) The developement of the tumor is generally retarded by the preva lence of cold, dry weather, and promoted by warm and damp weather; and it sometimes disappears entirely when the patient leaves the infected district. Various remedies, both internal and external, have been recommended. Ashes of sponge, soap, alkaline and sulphurous waters, and carbonate of soda, have been employed with success. Compression, friction, fumigation, lotions of different kinds, and, in some instances, the knife, have been resorted to; but the use of the latter is dangerous. GOMARA ISLANDS. (See Comoro.) 1832. GRAMMARIANS. (See Rhetoricians.) GREENE, Christopher, a lieutenantcolonel in the American revolutionary army, was born in 1737, in Warwick, a article Artillery, in the Encyclopædia Metown of Rhode Island. When still very tropolitana. We propose, in this article, young, he was elected a member of the not to treat of artillery as a science, but colonial legislature, from his native place, simply to describe the several apparatuses, and retained his seat until the commence- appointments, &c., which constitute what inent of the revolution, when he was is commonly understood as the artillery chosen a lieutenant in the Kentish guards. of an army, prefacing that description by Subsequently, in May, 1775, he was pro- a historical sketch of the progress and moted to the rank of major in “ an army successive changes which have taken of observation,” under the orders of his place in this important branch of the milrelative, general Nathaniel Greene. He itary art. In the most ancient times, was soon afterwards appointed to the when war was made with quickness and command of a company in a regiment impetuosity, the use of artillery was which formed a part of the army destined unknown: the club and the dart were, to act against Canada, and, at the siege at this time, the only instrunients of of Quebec, was taken prisoner. In attack and defence; and it was probably 1777, having been previously exchanged, some time before the bow and arrow he was intrusted, by Washington, with were thought of as offensive weapons. the charge of fort Mercer, on the river As the destructive means of attack were, Delaware, commonly called Red Bank, a by the latter invention, made to operate at post of great importance, where he was a distance, corresponding means of deattacked by a large detachment of Hes- fence became necessary; and trunks of sians, under colonel count Donop. He trees, interlaced with branches and suprepulsed the enemy, however; and among ported with earth, constituted the first fortheir slain were Donop himself, and colo- tification, which was afterwards improved nel Mingerode, ihe second in command. by substituting a wall with a parapet, for For this service congress voted colo- shooting arrows at the assailants. Afternel Greene an elegant sword, which, in wards, the walls were carried higher, and 1786, was presented by general Knox, holes left in them of sufficient size only to secretary of war, to his eldest son. In enable the archers to discharge their ar1778, Greene was with the army under rows effectually upon an enemy. To atSullivan, which, with the aid of a French tack, therefore, with any chance of sucfleet uuder D'Estaign, attempted to break cess, some powerful engine became neup the enemy's post on Rhode Island, cessary to batter down the walls: this but failed. He then returned to head- gave rise to the battering ram, which was quarters, and continued to serve under probably one of the first engines of anthe commander-in-chief, until the spring cient artillery. To what date we are to of 1781, when, having been posted on the refer the invention of this powerful maCroton river, in advance of the army, he chine is uncertain. We are informed, in was surprised by a corps of refugees, and the Second Book of Chronicles, that Uzwas barbarously murdered, in the forty- ziah, who began his reign 809 years befifth year of his age. fore the Christian era, “made in JerusaGrégoire, count, died at Paris, in lem engines, invented by cunning men, to May, 1831. be upon the towers and upon the bulGREGORIAN Chant. (See Music, Sa warks, to shoot arrows and great stones cred.) withal.” It is therefore probable that the Gross-Glogau, (See Glogau.) ram was at least known in those days, GROSSULAR. (See Garnet.) although we have no distinct mention of GUANACO. (See Llama.) it till the time of Pericles the Athenian GUANCHES. (See Canaries.) (409 B.C.). To oppose this powerful enGUERRERO was taken in arms against gine of attack, further means of defence the government, and shot, in February, became necessary; and the invention of 1831. ballistæ and catapultæ resulted probably GUILDFORD. (See North.) from this necessity. But these soon beGUM-TREE. (See Tupelo.) caine instruments not only of defence but GUNNERY. In the body of the work, of atiack; for, in the siege of Motya we referred to this head the history of the (about 370 B. C.), Dionysius, afier having different kinds of artillery which have battered down the fortification with his been used among different nations. The rams, advanced to the walls towers rolled article intended to have been inserted upon wheels, whence he galled the behaving been accidentally omitted, we sieged with continual volleys of stones give here the following sketch from the and darts thrown from his catapultæ |