calm with which he regards them. Quintilian's dictum ut illum eodem animo dixisse, quo bellavit, appareat 12 is applicable in the widest sense to the Commentaries. The completion of the work is due to Aulus Hirtius, who was a personal friend of Caesar 13 and with him in Gaul.14 In the Civil War he fought in Achaia, after Pharsalia, and took part in the war against Pharnaces. In B.C. 46 he was praetor, and so did not fight in the African War; 15 in B.C. 45 Gaul was his province; in B.C. 44, when Caesar was murdered, he was consul designate; he then joined, distrusting Antony, the relics of the Pompeian party, and fell at Mutina in April, B.C. 43. Though in the preface to book viii. he promised a continuation of the Civil War' to the death of Caesar, yet he only wrote the Bellum Alexandrinum, which is better written and less tame than book viii. The Bellum Hispaniense is by some other soldier, and is an unfinished composition. 12 Quint. x. 1. 114. 14 Cic. ad. Att. vii. 4. 13 Suet. c. 56. 15 viii. pref. § 8. PART II. MILITARY ORGANIZATION IN THE TIME OF CAESAR. LANGE, in his 'History of the Art of War among the Romans,' distinguishes three periods1-(1) The period during which the army was formed of citizens; this is subdivided into three epochs, to the time of Servius Tullius, from Servius Tullius to Camillus, from Camillus to Marius. (2) The period during which the army received pay, extending from Marius to Augustus, i.e., to the end of the Republic. (3) The period during which the army was a standing one; this embraces the Empire. Of these three periods we here study only the second, and only so far as it conduces to understanding Caesar. But to enable us to understand better the changes in the organization of the army during the second period it is necessary first to glance rapidly over the institutions of the earliest period. 1 Köchly and Rüstow distinguish the following principal phases of the organization of the Roman legion, viz., (1) The legion of Romulus, formed of the clientes of the equites; (2) of Servius, divided into classes and with the phalanx formation; (3) of Camillus, composed of regular troops, and with phalanx formation; (4) the first legion composed of maniples, as described by Livy; (5) the second legion, composed of maniples, as described by Polybius; (6) the legion of Marius, which attained the perfect development of the cohort formation. § 1. The Roman army under the kings; the classes liable to military service; the phalanx; armour. The army of Romulus consisted of 300 celeres, knights, commanded by a tribunus celerum, and 3,000 infantry. Each of the three tribes (Ramnes, Titienses, Luceres) furnished an equal number of efficient troops, under the orders of three tribuni militum, taken from the three tribes. The patrician cavalry formed the nucleus of the original army; Tullus Hostilius and Tarquinius Priscus increased it at the same time as the infantry; under Servius Tullius the infantry became the principal arm. The citizens of the five classes included in the census (assidui, locupletes) were alone liable to serve, and served at their own charges. The proletarii, i.e., the citizens registered below 11,000 asses, were exempt from service: if they were called out the state provided their equipment. The assidui were divided into iuniores, from 17 to 45 years, and seniores, from 46 to 60 years, the latter being reserved for the defence of the city (Liv. vi. 6). The order of battle was the phalanx, i.e., a continuous line without break, eight deep. The first and second ranks were composed of the first class, the rich; their equipment included helmet, cuirass, round shield of bronze (clipeus), and greaves (ocreae). The third and fourth ranks were composed of the second class, without cuirass, but with the scutum, a large rectangular shield. The fifth and sixth ranks of the third class, without greaves, but otherwise equipped like the preceding. The seventh and eighth by the fourth class, with the scutum as their only defensive weapon. These four classes were all armed with the spear (hastati) and sword. The fifth class formed the corps of rorari,2 light troops armed only with the javelin; to these last were attached the accensi velati armed with slings. § 2. The Roman legion during the Republic; formation by maniples. 1. An important change, attributed to Camillus, was the abolition of the phalanx and the adoption of the formation by maniples,3 detachments separated by certain intervals; this continued till the time of Marius. The normal strength of the legion was 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry; but this was increased according to their requirements, and might be raised to more than 6,000. 2. Instead of being divided by classes, the troops were redistributed in four kinds of equipment, according to their length of service and serviceableness. During the Punic Wars the legion comprised- 1,200 hastati: flos iuvenum pubescentium, 1,200 principes: robustior aetas, 600 triarii: veteranus miles spectatae virtutis, Liv. viii. 8. 1,200 velites light-armed troops taken from the lowest classes in the census (vewτatoi kai tεиxρóтαтоι, Polyb. vi. 21). 4,200 3. The maniples (see § 27), originally composed of 100 men, were, to give them greater mobility, divided 2 ros, dew or drop of rain. 3 Manipulus strictly, a handful of straw, wound round a pole and forming the simple original standard. See § 27. into centuries and placed under the command of two centurions, one of whom (centurio prior), on the right wing, commanded the whole maniple, and had therefore under his orders the centurion of the left wing (centurio posterior). The heavy-armed infantry of the legion, including the first three kinds of arms, were divided into 30 maniples of 120 men and subdivided into 60 centuries of 60 men; but it should be observed that the maniples of the triarii had only 60 men and the centuries 30, because there were only 600 triarii in the legion. The velites were attached to the maniples as light troops, at the rate of 20 to each century. The legion, then, was thus composed : Hastati: 10 maniples of 120-20 centuries of 60= 1,200 10 30 Velites 20 per century. 120=20 60=20 GO = 1,200 30= 600 4,200 § 3. The three lines, hastati, principes, triarii. The velites. At the same period the legion was usually formed in battle in three lines, quincunx form, like draughts Hastati: Triarii: The velites formed the rear ranks of the maniples and fought separately. The intervals in the front line of the maniples were equal. The front line, when it was compelled to withdraw, retired through |