dieis a Té pnoi, dost thou not perceive what he says? Sometimes it seems to make the relative more indefinite, like ris in oσris, whoever, qui-cumque.

But ofós Te in Attic Greek means able, capable, like duvarós, being really elliptical for rowûros oios, such as, and ré having no apparent force.

Omission of the Antecedent.

§ 152. The antecedent of a relative may be omitted when it can easily be supplied from the context, especially if it is indefinite (§ 229). E.g.

Ελαβεν ἃ ἐβούλετο, he took what he wanted ; ἔπειθεν ὁπόσους ἐδύνατο, he persuaded as many as he could; à μǹ oida ovde olopai eidévai, what I do not know, I do not even think I know; ἐγὼ καὶ ὧν ἐγὼ κρατῶ μevоvμev парà oví, I and those whom I command will remain with

you.

In such cases it is a mistake to say that raûta, èkeîvoi, &c. are understood; see N. 3. The relative clause here really becomes a substantive, and contains its antecedent within itself.

NOTE 1. Most relative adverbs regularly omit the antecedent; as Hev öte Toûto eidev, he came when he saw this (for then, when).

=

NOTE 2. The following expressions belong here :-σriv oi, some (§ 135, N. 5), more common than the regular eioiv oi, sunt qui, there are (those) who;—vioi (from ĕvi, · ἔνεστι οι ἔνεισι, and oi) some;-eviore (eu and ore), sometimes;—eσriv ov, somewhere;— ἔστιν ᾖ, in some way ;-ἔστιν ὅπως, somehow.

NOTE 3. When a clause containing a relative with omitted antecedent precedes the leading clause, the latter often contains a demonstrative referring back with emphasis to the omitted antecedent, as à Boulero Tavтa eλaßev, what he wanted, that he took, entirely different from Taûra à éßovλeto éλaßev, he took these (definite) things, which he wanted; ἃ ποιεῖν αἰσχρὸν, ταῦτα νόμιζε μηδὲ λέγειν εἶναι καλόν, what it is base to do, this believe that it is not even good to say (here Taûra is not the antecedent of å, which is indefinite and is not expressed). See § 148, N. 3.

Assimilation and Attraction.

§ 153. When a relative would naturally be in the accusative as the object of a verb, it is generally assimilated to the case of its antecedent if this is a genitive or dative. E.g.

'EK TWV TÓλewv ov exel, from the cities which he holds (for as exe); Tois ȧyaboîs ois exoper, with the good things which we have (for à exoμev). This is often called attraction.

NOTE 1. When an antecedent is omitted which (if it could have been expressed) would have been a genitive or dative, the assimilation still takes place; and a preposition which would have belonged to the antecedent passes over to the relative; as ἐδήλωσε τοῦτο οἷς ἔπραττε, he showed this by what he did (like ἐκείνοις α); σὺν οἷς ἔχω τὰ ἄκρα καταλήψομαι, I will seize the heights with the men whom I have (as if it were σὺν τοῖς ἀνδράσι οὓς ἔχω); οὐδὲν ὧν βούλεσθε πράξετε, you will do none of the things which you wish (like ékeívwv å). See § 148, N. 3.

NOTE 2. A relative is very seldom assimilated from any other construction than that of the object accusative, or into any other case than the genitive or dative. Yet exceptions occur; as v níoτel Todλovs, many of those whom he distrusted (like ékeivov ois). Even the nominative may be assimilated ; as βλάπτεσθαι ἀφ ̓ ὧν ἡμῖν παρεσκεύ aσTaι, to be injured by what has been prepared by us (like åπ' ékeivwv ä). Thue.

NOTE 3. A like assimilation takes place in relative adverbs; as διεκομίζοντο εὐθὺς ὅθεν ὑπεξέθεντο παῖδας καὶ γυναῖκας, they immedi ately brought over their children and women from the place in which they had placed them for safety (where ödev, from which, stands for ékeîdev oi, from the place whither). Thuc.

NOTE 4. The antecedent occasionally is assimilated to the case of the relative, when this immediately follows; as λeyov oτɩ TάVTWV. ὧν δέονται πεπραγότες εἶεν, they said that they had done all things which they needed (where návтov av for távra av is very irregular).

This inverted assimilation takes place in οὐδεὶς ὅστις οὐ, everybody, in which ovdeís follows the case of the relative; as ovdévi ŎTO οὐκ ἀποκρίνεται (for οὐδείς ἐστι ὅτῳ), he replies to everybody.

NOTE 5. A peculiar assimilation occurs in certain expressions with olos; as xapíšeσbai oiw σoi ȧvdpí, to please a man like you (for τοιούτῳ οἷος σύ).

§ 154. The antecedent is often attracted into the rela-. tive clause, and agrees with the relative. E.g.

Μὴ ἀφέλησθε ὑμῶν αὐτῶν ἣν κέκτησθε δόξαν καλήν, do not take from yourselves the good reputation which you have gained (for τǹv kaληv δόξαν ἣν κέκτησθε). The omission of the article here must be noticed.

NOTE. This attraction may be joined with assimilation (§ 153) ὃς ἀμαθέστατοι ἐστε ὧν ἐγὼ οἶδα 'Ελλήνων, you are the most ignorant of the Greeks whom I know; è§ ĥs rò πρâтоv čσɣe yvvaikós, from the wife

whom he had at first; oùv ǹ eixe dvvápel, with the force which he had (for σὺν τῇ δυνάμει ἂν εἶχεν). Το οἴχεται φεύγων ἂν ἦγες μάρτυρα, the witness whom you brought (for ó μáprus ôv ỷyes) has run away.

Relative in Exclamations, &c.

§ 155, Olos, öoos, and as are used in exclamations : as ὅσα πράγματα ἔχεις, how much trouble you have ! ὡς doreios, how witty!

For the relative in indirect questions, see § 149, 2.

Relative not repeated.

§ 156. A relative is seldom repeated in a new case in the same sentence, but a personal or demonstrative pronoun commonly takes its place. E.g.

Ἐκεῖνοι τοίνυν, οἷς οὐκ ἐχαρίζονθ' οἱ λέγοντες οὐδ ̓ ἐφίλουν αὐτοὺς wσTEρ iμâs ovтoi vov, those men, then, whom the orators did not try to gratify, and whom they did not love as these now love you (lit. nor did they love them as, &c.). Dem. Here avroús is used to avoid repeating the relative in a new case, ous.

NOTE. Sometimes, however, a new case of the relative is understood in the latter part of a sentence ; as 'Αριαῖος δὲ, ὃν ἡμεῖς ἠθέλομεν βασιλέα καθιστάναι, καὶ ἐδώκαμεν καὶ ἐλάβομεν πιστά, and Ariaeus, whom we wished to make king, and (to whom) we gave and (from whom) we received pledges, &c. Xen.

THE CASES.

REMARK. The Greek is descended from a language which had eight cases, an ablative, a locative, and an instrumental, besides the five found in Greek. The functions of the ablative were chiefly absorbed by the genitive; those of the instrumental and locative chiefly by the dative.

I. NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE.

§ 157. 1. The nominative is chiefly used as the subject of a finite verb (§ 134, 1), or in the predicate after verbs signifying to be, &c. (§ 136).

2. The vocative, with or without &, is used in addressing a person or thing; as a avspes 'A0nvaîoi, O men of Athens !—ȧkoveis, Aloxívn; dost thou hear, Aeschines?

NOTE. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations, and even in other expressions, where the vocative is more common; as ὤμοι ἐγὼ δειλός, Ο wretched me! So ἡ Πρόκνη ἔκβαινε, Procne, come out!

II. ACCUSATIVE.

REMARK. The primary purpose of the accusative is to denote the nearer or direct object of a verb, as opposed to the remoter or indirect object denoted by the dative. It thus bears the same relation to a verb which the genitive generally bears to a noun. The object denoted by the accusative may be the external object of the action of a transitive verb, or the internal (cognate) object of that of an intransitive verb. But the accusative has also assumed other functions, as will be seen, which cannot be brought under this or any other single category.

Accusative of Direct Object.

§ 158. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accusative; as TOUTO σe nuas, this preserves us ; тaÛта πоLOÛμev, we do these things.

NOTE 1. Many verbs which are transitive in English, and govern the objective case, take either a genitive or a dative in Greek. (Sec § 171, § 184, 2, and § 188, 1, N. 2).

NOTE 2. Many verbs which are transitive in Greek are intransitive in English; as ὀμοῦμαι τοὺς θεούς, I will swear by the gods; πάντας λabev, he escaped the notice of all.

NOTE 3. Verbal adjectives and even verbal nouns occasionally take an object accusative instead of the regular objective genitive (§ 167, 3, § 180); as ἐπιστήμονες ἦσαν τὰ προσήκοντα, they were acquainted with what was proper. Xen. So τα μετέωρα φροντιστής, one who ponders on the things above (like opovτíkov). Plat.

Cognate Accusative.

§ 159. Any verb whose meaning permits it may take an accusative of kindred signification. This accusative repeats the idea already contained in the verb, and may follow intransitive as well as transitive verbs. E.g.

Ἥδομαι τὰς μεγίστας ἡδονάς, I enjoy the greatest pleasures. Εντυ χοῦσι τοῦτο τὸ εὐτύχημα, they enjoy this good fortune. So πίπτειν πέσημα, to fall a fall; νόσον νοσεῖν οι νόσον ἀσθενεῖν οἱ νόσον κάμνειν, to suffer under a disease; áμáprημa åμaprávew, to commit an error (to sin a sin) ; δουλείαν δουλεύειν, to be subject to slavery; ἀγῶνα ἀγωνίζεσθαι, to undergo a contest; γραφὴν γράφεσθαι, to bring an indictment ; γραφὴν diákel, to prosecute an indictment; díkŋv òpλeîv, to lose a lawsuit; νίκην νικᾶν, to gain a victory; μάχην νικᾶν, to gain a victory ; πομπὴν TéμTEL, to form or conduct a procession; λnуny TúпTEш, to strike a blow.

REMARK. It will be seen that this construction is far more extensive in Greek than in English. It includes not only accusatives of kindred formation and meaning, as víkŋv viκâv, to gain a victory ; but also those of merely kindred meaning, as μáxηv vikav, to gain a battle. The accusative may also limit the meaning of the verb to one of many applications; as 'Oλúμmia vikav, to gain an Olympic victory; yápovs éσriâv, to give a wedding feast; pioμa viκâv, to carry a decree (to gain a victory with a decree); rà Ilavalηvaia méμжELV, to celebrate the Panathenaea by a procession.

For the cognate accusative becoming the subject of a passive verb, see § 198.

NOTE 1. The cognate accusative may follow adjectives or even nouns; as κακὸς πᾶσαν κακίαν, bad with all badness; ἀγαθὸς πᾶσαν ἀρετήν, good with all goodness; δοῦλος τὰς μεγίστας δουλείας, a slave to the direst slavery.

NOTE 2. A neuter adjective sometimes represents a cognate accusative, its noun being implied in the verb; as peɣáλa åμaptávei (sc. ἁμαρτήματα), to commit great faults; ταὐτὰ λυποῦμαι καὶ ταὐτὰ χαίρω, I have the same griefs and the same joys. Sο τὶ χρήσομαι τούτῳ ; (= τίνα χρείαν χρήσομαι ;) what use shall I make of this? and ovdev Xpησoμaι TOUTQ, I shall make no use of this (§ 188, 1, N. 2). So xpηoiμos ovdév, good for nothing (N. 1). See § 160, 2, Note.

NOTE 3. Here belongs the accusative of effect, which expresses a result beyond the action of the verb, which is effected by that action; as peoßevovσi τηv elpývny, they negotiate the peace (as ambassadors, péoßeis), but πрeoßevei прeσßelav, to go on an embassy. Compare the English breaking a hole, as opposed to breaking a stick. So after verbs of looking (in poetry); as "Apn dedoprévai, to look war; ʼn Bovλn ëßλeye vâπv, the Senate looked mustard.

NOTE 4. A transitive verb may have a direct and a cognate accusative at the same time; as γράφεσθαί τινα τὴν γραφὴν ταύτην, to bring this indictment against any one ; ἠδικήσαμεν τοῦτον οὐδέν, we did this man no wrong; tavta dídaσké μe, teach me this (§ 164); TOσOÛTOV ἔχθος ἐχθαίρω σε, so great hatred do I feel for thee; τὴν μάχην τοὺς Bapßápovs viknoas, having defeated the barbarians in the battle.