III. TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE.

§ 204. The tenses of the participle generally express the same time as those of the indicative; but they are present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb with which they are connected. E.g.

Αμαρτάνει τοῦτο ποιών, he errs in doing this ; ἡμάρτανε τοῦτο ποιῶν, he erred in doing this ; ἁμαρτήσεται τοῦτο ποιών, he will err in doing this. (Here To is first present, then past, then future, absolutely; but always present to the verb of the sentence.) Tavra εἰπόντες ἀπῆλθον, having said this, they departed. Οὐ πολλοὶ φαίVOVTAL ÉVVEλOÓVTES, not many appear to have joined the expedition. 'Enveσav Toùs eipηkóras, they praised those who had (already) spoken. Τοῦτο ποιήσων ἔρχεται, he is coming to do this; τοῦτο ποιήσων ἦλθεν, he came to do this. *Απελθε ταῦτα λαβών, take this and be off (aßáv being past to ǎπeλée, but absolutely future).

NOTE 1. The present may here also represent the imperfect; as οἶδα κἀκείνω σωφρονοῦντε, ἔστε Σωκράτει συνήστην, I know that they both were continent as long as they associated with Socrates (i.e., éowopoveίrny). See § 203, Note 1.

NOTE 2. The aorist participle in certain constructions does not denote time past with reference to the leading verb, but expresses a simple occurrence without regard to time (like the aorist infinitive in § 202). This is so in the following examples :—

Ἔτυχεν ἐλθών, he happened to come; ἔλαθεν ἐλθών, he came secretly; ponov, he came first. (See § 279, 2.) Пepudeiv Tηv ynu Tunbeioav, to allow the land to be ravaged (to see it ravaged). (See § 279, 3.) So sometimes when the participle denotes that in which the action of the verb consists (§ 227); as ev y' éñoíŋoas ȧvaμvýσas pe, you did well in reminding me.

IV. GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES.

$ 205. 1. The present is the tense commonly used in Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habitual action ; as πλοῖον εἰς Δῆλον ̓Αθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν, the Athenians send a ship to Delos (annually).

2. In animated language the aorist is used in this sense. This is called the gnomic aorist, and is generally translated by the English present. E.g.

Ἤν τις τούτων τι παραβαίνῃ, ζημίαν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν, i.e., they impose a penalty on all who transgress. Μι' ἡμέρα τὸν μὲν καθεῖλεν úvódev, Tòv & hp' ǎvw, one day (often) brings down one man from a height and raises another high.

NOTE 1. Here one distinct case in past time is vividly used to represent all possible cases. Examples containing such adverbs as Todλákis, often, hồŋ, already, ovñw, never yet, illustrate the construction; as ἀθυμοῦντες ἄνδρες οὔπω τρόπαιον ἔστησαν, disheartened men never yet raised a trophy.

NOTE 2. An aorist resembling the gnomic is found in Homeric similes ; as ἤριπε δ' ὡς ὅτε τις δρυς ἤριπεν, and he fell, as when some oak falls (lit. as when an oak once fell).

NOTE 3. The gnomic aorist sometimes occurs in indirect discourse in the infinitive and participle, and even in the optative.

3. The perfect is sometimes gnomic, like the aorist. E.g.

Τὸ δὲ μὴ ἐμποδὼν ἀνανταγωνίστῳ εὐνοίᾳ τετίμηται, but those who are not before men's eyes are honoured with a good will which has no rivalry.

The gnomic perfect may be used in the infinitive.

§ 206. The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used with the adverb av to denote a customary action. E.g.

Διηρώτων ἂν αὐτοὺς τί λέγοιεν, I used to ask them (I would often ask them) what they said. Hoλλákis ýkovσaμer av iμâs, we used often to hear you.

REMARK. This construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary apodosis with av (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he would often do this for he used to do this, and was probably developed from the past potential construction (§ 226, N. 2).

NOTE. The Ionic has iterative forms in -okov and -σкоμŋv in both imperfect and aorist. (See § 122, 2). Herodotus uses these also with av, as above.

THE PARTICLE "AN.

§ 207. The adverb av (Epic ké) has two distinct

uses.

1. It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indicative (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action

of the verb is dependent on some condition, expressed or implied. Here it belongs to the verb.

2. It is joined regularly to ei, if, and to all relative and temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles is, Öπws, and oppa), when these are followed by the subjunctive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, with which it often forms one word, as in ẻáv, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν.

There is no English word which can translate av. In its first use it is expressed in the would or should of the verb (Boudoiro av, he would wish; oiμnv av, I should choose). In its second use it has no force which can be made apparent in English.

REMARK. The above statement (§ 207) includes all regular uses of av except the Epic construction explained in § 255, and the iterative construction of § 206.

The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the various uses of av: when these are explained more fully elsewhere, reference is made to the proper sections.

§ 208. 1. The present and perfect indicative never take äv. 2. The future indicative often takes av (or ké) in the early poets, especially in Homer; very rarely in Attic Greek. E.g.

Καί κέ τις ὧδ ̓ ἐρέει, and perhaps some one will thus speak; ἄλλοι, oi ké μe tiμýσovoi, others who will honour me (if occasion offers). The future with av seems to have been an intermediate form between the simple future, will honour, and the optative with av, would honour. One of the few examples found in Attic prose is in Plat. Apol. p. 29, C.

3. The most common use of "v with the indicative is when it forms an apodosis with the secondary tenses. It here denotes that the condition upon which the action of the verb depends is not or was not fulfilled. See $ 222. §

For the past potential construction with av, see § 226, 2 N. 2; for the iterative construction with av see § 206.

§ 209. 1. In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with äv only in the constructions mentioned in § 207, 2, where av belongs to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233, also § 216, 1, N. 2.

2. In Epic poetry, where the subjunctive is often used nearly or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), it may, like the future (§ 208, 2), take av or ké. E.g.

Εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι, and if they do not give her up, I will take her myself.

§ 210. The optative with av forms an apodosis, with which a condition must be either expressed or implied. It denotes what would happen if the condition should be fulfilled (§ 224).

NOTE. The future optative is never used with av. See § 203,

N. 3.

§ 211. The present and aorist (rarely the perfect) infinitive and participle are used with av to form an apodosis. Each tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative with ar,-the present representing also the imperfect, and the perfect also the pluperfect.,

Thus the present infinitive or participle with ay may represent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with äv; the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with av; the perfect, either a pluperfect indicative or a perfect optative with äv. E.g.

(Pres.) Φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, he says that they would (now) be free (ĥoav av), if they had done this; noiv αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο πράξειαν, he says that they would (hereafter) be free (elev av), if they should do this. Oida avtovs ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, I know that they would (now) be free (oav av), if they had done this; oida avtovs élev¤épovs ἂν ὄντας, εἰ ταῦτα πράξειαν, I know that they would (hereafter) be free (elev av) if they should do this.

(Aor.) Φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο éyévero, they say (or I know) that he would have come (dev av), if this had happened; φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, they say (or I know that he would come (boi av), if this should happen.

(Perf.) Εἰ μὴ τὰς ἀρετάς ἐκείνας παρέσχοντο, πάντα ταῦθ ̓ ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων ἂν ἑαλωκέναι φήσειεν ἄν τις), had they not exhibited those exploits of valour, we might say that all this would have been captured by the barbarians (ἑαλώκει ἄν); οὐκ ἂν ἡγοῦμαι αὐτοὺς δίκην ἀξίαν δεδωκέναι, εἰ αὐτῶν καταψηφίσαισθε, I do not think they would (then,

in the future) have suffered proper punishment, if you should condemn them (δεδωκότες ἂν εἶεν).

The context must decide in each case whether we have the equivalent of the indicative or the optative with äv. In the examples given, the form of the protasis generally settles the question.

NOTE. As the early poets who use the future indicative with av (§ 208, 2) do not use this construction, the future infinitive and participle with av are very rarely found.

§ 212. 1. When av is used with the subjunctive (as in § 207, 2), it is generally separated from the introductory word only by monosyllabic particles like μév, dé, Té, yáp, &c.

2. In a long apodosis av may be used twice or even three times with the same verb ; as οὐκ ἂν ἡγεῖσθ ̓ αὐτὸν κἂν ἐπιδραpεîr, do you not think that he would even have rushed thither ? In Thuc. ii. 41, av is used three times with aρéxεolαι.

3. "Av may be used elliptically with a verb understood; as οἱ οἰκέται ῥέγκουσιν· ἀλλ ̓ οὐκ ἂν πρὸ τοῦ (sc. ἔρρεγκον), the slaves are snoring; but in old times they wouldn't have done so. So in φοβούμενος ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ παῖς, fearing like a child (ὥσπερ ἂν ἐφοβεῖτο εἰ παῖς ἦν. See § 277, Ν. 3.

4. When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, ἂν generally stands only with the first; as οὐδὲν ἂν διάφορον τοῦ ἑτέρου ποιοῖ, ἀλλ ̓ ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀμφότεροι ἴοιεν, he would do nothing different from the other, but both would aim at the same object (äv belongs also to tour).

NOTE. The adverb ráxa, quickly, soon, readily, is often prefixed to av, in which case ráx' av is nearly equivalent to lows, perhaps. The av here always forms an apodosis, as usual, with the verb of the sentence; as тáx' av ëλooi, perhaps he would come.

THE MOODS.

§ 213. 1. The indicative is used in simple, absolute assertions; as ypáper, he writes; eypayev, he wrote; ypável, he will write; yeypaper, he has written.

It has a tense to express every variety of time which is recognized by the Greek verb, and it can thus state a sup