LESSON XX.

THE COMMA.

§ 118. THE word COMMA means that which is cut off, and the mark so called denotes the least degree of separation that requires a point. In its present form, the comma is not found in manuscripts anterior to the ninth century; a straight line drawn vertically between the words was formerly used in its place.

§ 119. GENERAL RULE.-The comma is used to separate words, phrases, clauses, and short members, closely connected with the rest of the sentence, but requiring separation by some point in consequence of the construction or arrangement.

PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

§ 120. Words, phrases, adjuncts, and clauses, are said to be PARENTHETICAL when they are not essential to the meaning of a sentence and are introduced in such a way as to break the connection between its component parts. They are generally introduced near the commencement of a sentence, between a subject and its verb; but they may occupy other positions. Every such parenthetical expression must be separated from the leading proposition by a comma before and after it.

As these expressions are of constant occurrence, and are always punctuated in the same manner, with a comma on each side of them, it is important that the pupil should be able to recognize them without difficulty. The following examples contain respectively a parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, and clause, printed in italics; which, it will be

§ 118. What does the word comma mean? What degree of separation does the mark so called denote? In its present form, when was the comma first used? Before that time, what was employed in its stead?

§ 119. Repeat the General Rule.

§ 120. When are words, phrases, adjuncts, and clauses, said to be parenthetical? Where are they generally introduced? How must every parenthetical ex

seen, may be omitted without injury to the sense, and stand, in every case, between the subject and its verb :

EXAMPLES OF PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

1. Napoleon, unquestionably, was a man of genius.

2. There is, as it were, an atmospheric maelstrom all about us. 3. History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons.

4. Thomson, who was blessed with a strong and copious fancy, drew his images from nature itself.

RESTRICTIVE EXPRESSIONS.

§ 121. The mere introduction of adjuncts and clauses between a subject and its verb, does not make them parenthetical. Sometimes they form an essential part of the logical subject, and can not be omitted without rendering the sense incomplete. In that case, they are not parenthetical, but RESTRICTIVE; and there must be no comma between them and that which they restrict. Whether a comma is to be placed after such restrictive expressions, depends on principles hereafter explained.

Examples of restrictive adjuncts and clauses are furnished below. The pupil is requested to compare them carefully with the examples of parenthetical expressions just given, and to make himself so familiar with their distinguishing features that he can at once determine to which of the two classes any given adjunct or clause belongs. Few sentences occur, without expressions of this kind; and, as they must have a comma on each side of them if parenthetical, but none before them if restrictive, constant mistakes will be made unless the distinction is thoroughly understood. The criterion is, will the meaning of the sentence be preserved if the expression is omitted? If so, it is parenthetical; if not, restrictive.

EXAMPLES OF RESTRICTIVE EXPRESSIONS.

1. The love of money is the root of all evil.

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

2. A man tormented by a guilty conscience can not be happy. Those who sleep late lose the best part of the day.

pression be cut off from the rest of the sentence? Give examples, and show in each case how you know the expression to be parenthetical.

§ 121. Besides its position, what is necessary to make an expression parenthetical? When are adjuncts and clauses called restrictive? From what must restrictive adjuncts and clauses not be cut off by the comma? What is the criterion for determining whether a sentence is parenthetical or restrictive? Give examples, and show in each case how you know the expression to be restrictive.

RULE I-PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

§ 122. A comma must be placed before and after every parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, clause, and expression; see the examples in § 120.

The words referred to in this rule are chiefly conjunctions and adverbs. Those of most frequent occurrence are as follows:

in reality,

no doubt,

apparently,

meanwhile,

consequently,

unquestionably,

accordingly,
notwithstanding.

The phrases most frequently used parenthetically are as follows:

as a matter of course,

at all events,

In truth,

in fact,

in fine,

in short,

in general,
in particular,

The most common

Without doubt,
without question,
beyond a doubt,
beyond question,

Any of the clauses enumerated in § 43 may be used parenthetically. § 123. A comma must be placed before and after parenthetical subjects introduced by as well as; as, "Industry, as well as genius, is essential to the production of great works."-" Printing, as well as every other important invention, has wrought great changes in the world."

§ 124. A comma must be placed on each side of negative adjuncts and clauses, when introduced parenthetically by way of contrast or opposition; as, "Prosperity is secured to a state, not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dissemination of virtuous principles.”

§ 122. Repeat Rule I. What parts of speech, for the most part, are the words here referred to? Enumerate some of the principal. Mention the phrases most frequently introduced parenthetically. Give some of the commonest parenthetical adjuncts. What clauses may be used parenthetically?

§ 123. What subjects are introduced parenthetically, and fall under this rule? § 124. State the principle that applies to negative adjuncts and clauses. What

If, however, the word expressing negation is removed from the adjunct or clause in question and joined to the leading verb, one comma only must be used, and that before the conjunction which introduces the last of the contrasted expressions; as, "Prosperity is not secured to a state by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dissemination of virtuous principles."

If the parts of the sentence are inverted, so that the clauses or adjuncts are brought before the leading verb with the introductory words it is, then the clause or adjunct introduced by the conjunction receives the commas, one on each side; as, "It is not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry and the dissemination of virtuous principles, that prosperity is secured to a state."

§ 125. Some are in the habit of omitting the comma before a parenthetical expression when it follows a conjunction. This is wrong; there, as in every other position, it must be cut off by a comma on each side: as, "Your manners are affable, and, for the most part, pleasing."

§ 126. Observe, with regard to the words referred to in Rule I., that it is only when they belong to the whole proposition, and not to individual words, that they are thus cut off by commas. A few examples, which the pupil is requested to compare, will illustrate this difference.

EXAMPLES. The passions of mankind, however, frequently blind them. However fairly a bad man may appear to act, we distrust him.—Is it, then, to be supposed that vice will ultimately triumph?-We then proceeded on our way. I would, too, present the subject in another point of view. It rains too hard to venture out.

EXERCISE.

Supply the commas omitted in the following sentences, remembering that none must be introduced unless required by a positive rule:

UNDER § 122. Nothing on earth I tell you can persuade me to such a step. There is it must be admitted something attractive in such dreamy speculations.-Nothing in my opinion is more prejudicial to the interests of a nation than unsettled and varying policy.-The fundamental principles of science at least those that were abstract rather than practical were deposited during the Middle Ages in the dead languages.-A

change in the punctuation must be made, if the word expressing negation is removed from the adjunct or clause and joined to the leading verb? What is the proper mode of pointing, when the parts of the sentence are inverted, and the introductory words it is are employed

§ 125. In what case are some in the habit of omitting the comma before a parenthetical expression? Is this right?

§ 126. In what case only are the words referred to in Rule I. cut off by commas?

whiff of tobacco smoke strange as it may appear gives among these barbarous tribes not merely a binding force but an inviolable sanctity to treaties. This added to other considerations will prevent me from coming.

UNDER § 123. Nations as well as men fail in nothing which they boldly attempt.-The unprincipled politician like the chameleon is constantly changing his color.-Marie Antoinette unlike most regal personages was extremely affable in her manners.-The insect as well as the man that treads upon it has an office to perform.-Dangerous as well as degrading are the promptings of pride.-Printing like every other important invention has wrought great changes in the world.

UNDER 124. This principle has been fully settled not by any single act but by the repeated and deliberate declarations of government.—Songs not of merriment and revelry but of praise and thanksgiving were heard ascending. A great political crisis is the time not for tardy consultation but for prompt and vigorous action.-A great political crisis is not the time for tardy consultation but for prompt and vigorous action. It is not tardy consultation but prompt and vigorous action that a great political crisis requires.-Juries not judges are responsible for these evils.-Not for his own glory but for his country's preservation did Washington take the field. It was not in the hope of personal aggrandizement that our forefathers embarked in the revolutionary struggle but to secure for themselves and their posterity that without which they felt life was valueless. UNDER § 125. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover; and like Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love. We may perhaps find it difficult to admire Queen Elizabeth as a woman; but without doubt as a sovereign she deserves our highest respect. She soon if we may believe contemporaneous historians gained incredible influence with her people; and while she merited all their esteem by her real virtues she also engaged their affections by her pretended ones.

UNDER 126. There were besides several other considerations which led Columbus to believe that the earth was round.-There are others besides its soldiers to whom a state should show its gratitude.-Now from this I would argue that all violent measures are at the present time impolitic. Who now believes in the divine right of kings?-Morning will come at last however dark the night may be.-Galileo however was convinced of the truth of his theory, and therefore persisted in maintaining it even at the risk of imprisonment and death. [In the last sentence, therefore does not break the connection sufficiently to be set off by commas.]

LESSON XXI.

THE COMMA (CONTINUED).

RULE II.-CLAUSES, WORDS, PHRASES, AND ADJUNCTS.

§ 127. When clauses, and when words, phrases, and ad juncts, that may be used parenthetically, are introduced in