§ 211. KINDS OF TYPE.-There are different sizes of type, of which the following are most used: English, Pica, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. Small Pica, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. Long Primer, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, Agate, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. abedefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. Pearl, Diamond, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. Putting matter in type is technically called composing, or setting up. The amount of matter composed is estimated in ems, or spaces of the length of the letter m; which differ, of course, according to the size of the type employed. By Leads are meant thin plates of type-metal, with which the lines are sometimes separated. When these plates are employed, the matter is said to be leaded; when not, solid. § 212. ITALICS, so called from their having been first used by Italian printers, are letters inclined to the right, like those in which this clause is printed; and are indicated in manuscript by a line drawn under the words to be italicized. They are used for emphatic, important, and contrasted terms; for words and sentences introduced to illustrate rules; for names of newspapers, vessels, &c.; and for words and quotations from foreign languages. As no more definite rule for their use can be given, the composer must exercise his judgment in deciding when they may with propriety be employed. It is necessary only to caution him against using them too freely. Like every thing else, when made familiar, they lose their effect; and, besides offending the eye, tend rather to perplex the reader than to aid him in determining what is really emphatic. In the English Bible, italics are not used for emphatic words; but § 211. Mention the different sizes of type, in order. What is meant by composing, or setting up, type? How is the amount of composed matter estimated? What is an em? What are leads? What is meant by leaded matter? What, by solid? § 212. Describe italics. Why are they so called? How are they indicated in manuscript? For what are they used? What is the effect of employing them too freely? In the Bible, what do italics denote ? for such as are wanting in the original Hebrew or Greek, and were introduced by the translators to complete or explain the meaning. § 213. RUNNING TITLES, or HEAD-LINES, consist of a word or words placed at the top of a page to show the subject of which it treats. They are usually printed in capitals or small capitals. Such headings, when placed over chapters and paragraphs, are known as CAPTIONS and SUB-HEADS; and as SIDE-HEADS, when commencing the first line of the paragraph to which they refer. § 214. The first page of a book contains the title, and is therefore styled the TITLE-PAGE. A plate facing it is known as the FRONTISPIECE. A small ornamental engraving sometimes found on the title-page, and often at the commencement of chapters, is called a VIGNETTE. This term means a little vine; and the engraving in question was so designated from the fact that originally a vine, or a wreath of vine-leaves, was the favorite form of such ornaments. In old books, printers were in the habit of placing under the last line of each page the word with which the following page was to commence, either as a guide in the arrangement of the pages, or to prevent hesitation on the part of the reader while turning from one to another. These are called CATCH-WORDS; they are now no longer used. LESSON XXXI. GRAMMATICAL INACCURACIES. § 215. WHATEVER merits of style or thought an author may possess, or whatever applause he may temporarily receive, he can not expect permanently to hold an honorable § 213. Of what do running titles, or head-lines, consist? How are they usually printed? When placed over chapters and paragraphs, what are such headings called? What is meant by side-heads? § 214. What is meant by the title-page of a book? What, by the frontispiece? What is a vignette? What is the meaning of this term, and why was the engraving in question so called? In old books, what was placed at the bottom of each page? What were these words called? position in literature, unless he is thoroughly acquainted with the rules of grammar, and observes them in composition. Without a preparatory knowledge of this art, but little benefit can be derived from exercises in rhetoric. Before entering on the latter study, therefore, it is expected that the student will not only have made himself familiar with the principles of language in general, but will also have devoted particular attention to the grammar of his own tongue: it is presupposed that he is well versed in its etymology; that he can analyze or parse its sentences; and that he has intelligently applied its rules in the correction of false syntax. Yet, even after such preparation, when he comes to the construction of original sentences, he will inevitably find that in guarding against the violation of one principle he often overlooks another; and that, notwithstanding his utmost care, he is occasionally betrayed into inaccuracies, and even solecisms. If this is the case with one who is conversant with grammar (and that it is, the pages of many well-educated writers conclusively show), how liable to error must those be whose acquaintance with the art is imperfect or superficial! While the latter are advised to pursue a complete course of syntax with the aid of some standard text-book, the author has deemed it proper to insert here for their benefit, as well as that of all whose memory may need refreshing on these essential points, a few rules covering those cases in which he has found that beginners are most liable to err. § 216. When two or more adjectives belong to a noun with which there is occasion to use the article also, the latter is placed before the first adjective alone if reference is made to a single object, but before each if several objects are referred to. Thus: "a white and red flag" signifies one flag, partly red and partly white; two flags, one red and the other white. before the last adjective, unless it is clear that but one thing is intended. $217. The possessive case and the word that governs it must not be a white and a red flag" means Do not, therefore, omit the article § 215. What is essential to an honorable position in literature? What is ex pected of the student before he enters on the study of rhetoric? § 216. State the principle relating to the use of the article before a noun with which several adjectives are connected. (Give examples in each case.) separated by an intervening clause; thus, "The knave thereupon commenced rifling his friend's, as he facetiously called him, pocket," must be changed to "The knave thereupon commenced rifling the pocket of his friend, as he facetiously called him." § 218. In addressing the same person, do not, in the progress of a sentence, use pronouns of different number; but preserve either the singular or the plural throughout. Thus, it is wrong to say, "I owe thee a heavy debt of gratitude, and will you not allow me to repay it? We should have either "I owe you a heavy debt," or "and wilt thou not," &c. § 219. Each is singular; and a pronoun or verb agreeing with it must also be singular; as, "Let them depend each on his own exertions," not their own. So, several nouns preceded respectively by each, every, or no, whether connected by and or not, require a singular verb and pronoun; as, "Every lancer and every rifleman was at his post." § 220. Recollect that, under all circumstances, a verb must agree with its subject in person and number. When a plural substantive is introduced between a singular subject and its verb, be careful not to put the verb in the plural. "Too great a variety of studies perplex and weaken the judgment." Variety, the subject, being in the singular, perplex and weaken should be perplexes and weakens. § 221. When in two connected clauses the leading verb is in the present or the future tense, the dependent one must not be in the past. Thus, in the sentence, "You will not come unto me that ye might have life," might is wrong, because it is connected in the past tense with the leading verb will come, which is future. Might have should be changed to may have, which is present. On the other hand, if the leading verb is in the past tense, the dependent verb must be past also. Thus, in the example last given, if will come were changed to would come, might have would be correct; as, “Ye would not come unto me that ye might have life." 222. Two verbs connected by a conjunction without separate nom § 217. State the principle that relates to the position of the possessive case and the word that governs it. § 218. What is to be observed respecting the use of pronouns in the progress of a sentence? § 219. What number is each? What number must a pronoun or verb agreeing with it be? State the other rule laid down in this section. § 220. Give the rule for the agreement of the verb. What common error must be avoided? § 221. What is the rule for the tenses of the leading and dependent verb in connected clauses? inatives, must be in the same mood. This rule is violated in the follow. ing sentence; would go being in the potential mood, and suffered in the indicative: "The Pharisees would neither go into the kingdom of Heaven themselves, nor suffered others to enter." Either a new nominative must be introduced for suffered to agree with, or one of the verbs must be altered to the same mood as the other. The sentence is best corrected by changing the second verb. "The Pharisees would neither go into the kingdom of Heaven themselves, nor suffer others to enter." § 223. The transitive verbs lay, raise, and set, must not be confounded with the intransitives, lie, rise, and sit. This common error must be carefully avoided. Compare these verbs, as conjugated below. We lay a thing down, raise it up, and set it in its place. We lie abed when we are sick, but rise as soon as we are able to sit up. § 224. When several auxiliaries belonging to different tenses are used with the same participle or verbal form, care must be taken to have them consistent. "I can make as much money as he has." As he has what? Evidently has make, which would be bad grammar. The sentence should read, "I can make as much money as he has made." § 225. Whom, and not who, must be used as the object of a verb. "He is a man whom I honor next to the king himself; " not who, for the verb honor governs the relative in the objective case, although the latter stands before it. § 226. A preposition must not be introduced after a transitive verb, to govern a substantive which is really the object of the latter. "Covet earnestly for the best gifts;" covet being a transitive verb, for should be omitted. § 227. Never use to, the sign of the infinitive, for the infinitive itself; as in the sentence, "I have not seen him, and I am not likely to." It should be, "I am not likely to see him." What is said of the mood of two verbs connected by a conjunction? How may sentences in which this rule is violated be corrected? § 223. What verbs must not be confounded? Conjugate the transitive verbs lay, raise, set. Conjugate the intransitives lie, rise, sit. §224. Give the rule relating to auxiliaries. §225. What is the objective of the relative who, and when must it be used? § 226. What part of speech must not be introduced to govern the object of a transitive verb ? $227. What must not be used for the infinitive? |