once matured, but must have been the result of the necessities and experience of successive generations. This, however, does not accord with the facts of history; for, however far we go back, we can not arrive at any period when even the most unenlightened portions of mankind did not possess a system of language. Scripture informs us that this means of communication was employed by the first man and woman, as well as their immediate descendants; and we are hence forced to the conclusion that it was the result of a direct revelation from on high.

Nevertheless, while the elements were thus imparted by God, it is natural to suppose that much was left for man to perfect; and that, just as a mind was given to him which he is required to cultivate and fit for the performance of its duties by a long course of training, so the mere elements were imparted, out of which he had to form by successive improvements a perfect means of communication. "Three things," says Scaliger, "have contributed to enable man to perfect language,-necessity, practice, and the desire to please. Necessity produced a collection of words very imperfectly connected; practice, in multiplying them, gave them more expression; while it is to the desire of pleasing that we owe those agreeable turns, those happy collocations of words, which impart to phrases both elegance and grace."

We are confirmed in this supposition by the fact that the history of many languages shows a gradual progress from imperfect beginnings to a finished state, and that there is hardly any cultivated tongue, which, if traced back to its earlier ages, will not be found either defective in some of its parts or wanting in those characteristics which are a source

§ 4. Leaving these theories, by whom must we conclude that language was invented? If it was devised by man, what would we find on looking back at the history of early times? Was this the case? What does Scripture inform us with regard to the first man and woman, and their immediate descendants? What follows from this? Was any thing left for man to perfect? According to Scaliger, by what was man enabled to perfect language? What did necessity produce? What did practice impart to them? What do we owe to the desire of pleasing?

of beauty and strength. The language of a nation, traced through the successive eras of its existence, will be found to have undergone a series of improvements, in all respects analogous to the advances which have been made in the institutions and social condition of the people who speak it. In the first great antediluvian language, similar changes must have occurred.

It may be added that the divine origin of language is maintained by a number of our best writers. Locke, in his "Essay on the Human Understanding", Book III., chap. 1, sec. 1, says: "God, having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with an inclination and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind; but furnished him, also, with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society."

§ 5. IDEAS may be communicated by written, as well as spoken, language. The latter represents ideas by articulate sounds; the former employs certain arbitrary characters to represent these articulate sounds, and thus through a double medium conveys the ideas themselves. It is written language alone that gives permanence to thoughts.

The exact

§ 6. Written language was devised by man. period of its origin is unknown; but it is supposed not to have been invented until several centuries after men were in possession of a complete system of spoken language. The

What fact confirms us in the belief that in language much was left for man to perfect? What is Locke's view of the origin of language?

§ 5. What else besides spoken language enables us to communicate ideas? How does spoken language represent ideas? How, written language? Which gives permanence to thoughts?

§ 6. By whom was written language devised? When is it supposed to have

systems first employed were necessarily rude and imperfect; but, as men increased in experience and knowledge, successive improvements were made, until at last the present simple method was devised. Four systems have been employed in different ages and countries; the Ideographic, the Verbal, the Syllabic, and the Alphabetic.

§ 7. Ideographic System.-The earliest method of conveying thoughts by means of written characters is called Ideographic. It represented material objects and facts by means of pictures; and what was not material or visible, but was merely conceived in the mind, and could not, therefore, be thus depicted, by symbols. Thus the idea of a battle. was conveyed by a pictorial representation of two men engaged in fighting; while the abstract idea of eternity was denoted by a circle, which, being without beginning or end, was an appropriate emblem. It represented things themselves, and not their names.

The hieroglyphics* of Egypt were, in part, Ideographic. The Mexicans, also, used this system at the time of Cortes' invasion; their king was informed of the arrival of the Spaniards and their ships, by pieces of white linen on which were painted objects resembling vessels, and men in Spanish garb. Ideographic writing is also said to have been employed by some of the North American Indians.

§8. Verbal System.-The Verbal system is second in point of antiquity. It appropriated a peculiar character to cach

*This word signifies "sacred carvings", being derived from the Greek words iɛpós, sacred, and yλúpw, to carve.

been invented? What was its character at first? What change took place as men increased in knowledge? How many systems have prevailed?

§ 7. What is the earliest system called? How did it represent material objects? How, what was not material or visible? Give an example. Did it represent objects themselves, or their names? To what system did the hieroglyphics of Egypt, in part, belong? What other people used this system? How was the Mexican king informed of the Spaniards' arrival? By what other race has Idcographic writing been employed?

§ 8. What is the second system called? How did it represent material objects

object and idea, without reference to the word by which such object or idea was represented. This was an improvement or the Ideographic system, but was objectionable on account of the great number of characters required. Chinese, at the present day, is written in a measure according to this system. Old authorities inform us that it employs no less than 80,000 characters; later researches, however, prove the number to be considerably smaller. As each character represents an object or abstract idea, and not merely a sound, it follows that any thing written according to this system is understood by all that are acquainted with the characters, although their own spoken languages may be totally different; just as the value of figures in their various combinations is universally known to the nations of Europe, notwithstanding the difference in their respective tongues. The written language of the Chinese Empire, accordingly, is read and understood by the people of Japan, Corea, Loo-choo, and Cochin China, as well as by various other tribes who are unable to hold the slightest oral intercourse with cach other."

It is proper to add that this is denied by some, who contend that Chinese is written mainly according to the Syllabic system, a description of which follows. If any Japanese or Coreans are found to understand written Chinese, it is, according to these authorities, from their having studied it, or else on account of its resemblance to their own written systems. Our present greatly increased facilities for obtaining information respecting the people of the Celestial Empire and their peculiarities, will soon dissipate all uncertainty on this subject; and we shall probably find that each opinion has some foundation in truth. It is likely either that the characters are partly Verbal and partly Syllabic, or else that there are two distinct systems, originally perhaps used by different classes, but now employed indiscriminately at the option of the writer.

and abstract ideas? What rendered it objectionable? In what language is it still employed? How many characters are required in this language? Need ono understand the spoken language, in order to understand a written language in which the Verbal system is employed? Give an example. In illustration of this, what is mentioned with regard to the written language of the Chinese Empire? What account do other authorities give of written Chinese? How do they explain the fact that some Japanese and Coreans are found to understand it? What is probable with regard to these different opinions?

§ 9. Syllabic System.-By the two systems above described, things themselves were represented without reference to the sounds by which they are denoted. But the frequent recurrence of the same syllables in the names of things soon led men to see the advantages that would be gained by representing the sound instead of the thing signified; and hence originated a third method, commonly called the Syllabic system. In this, certain characters were employed to represent, not objects, but syllabic sounds, by a combination of which the names of things were denoted. Thus the word agriculture would be expressed by four characters only, one representing each syllable. Though this was a great improvement on the Verbal System, it was also objectionable on account of the number of characters required. It is thought at one time to have been used by many Asiatic nations; and is still the basis, though in a somewhat modified form, of the written language of the Ethiopians and that of the Siamese.

§ 10. Alphabetic System.-The defects incident to the systems described above finally taught man the necessity of inventing some new method of conveying his thoughts; and hence resulted the introduction and ultimate perfection of Alphabetic writing, which is used in almost all languages at the present day. This may be regarded as the greatest of human inventions, and has contributed more than any thing else to the progress of civilization. According to this system, the simple sounds of the human voice are represented by appropriate marks or letters, by combining which syllables and words are formed; and that with such precision and

§ 9. How were ideas represented by the two systems already described ? What system was next invented? According to the Syllabic system, what did each character represent? How were words denoted? How many characters would this system require to express the word agriculture? How did the Syllabic compare with the Verbal system? What rendered the Syllabic system ohjectionable? By what nations was it at one time employed? In what written language is it still used?

§ 10. By the defects of these systems, what was man finally taught? What system was next invented? How may it be regarded? What are represented