versation. Thus undermined, popular prejudice gradually became less violent. The superior versatility of the language of their conquerors and its peculiar adaptedness to poetry were soon acknowledged by the educated. The treasures of the early ballad and romantic literature of Normandy were eagerly sought for; and, within a hundred years after the Conquest, we find the people as willing to learn the Norman tongue, and engraft its beauties on their own, as their fathers had been opposed to speaking or even hearing it.

This willingness, however, extended only to a modification of their vernacular; the determination was still as strong and unanimous as ever against allowing the introduction of Norman French at the expense and to the exclusion of the latter. To improve its constructions and enlarge its vocabulary would be to increase its usefulness; and for these purposes they freely drew on the language of their conquerors. But the latter was rendered odious by too many unpleasant associations to allow of its substitution for a tongue which the use of centuries had rendered sacred in their eyes. Of effecting this, the power of William and his successors was totally incapable. The people carried their point; and within two hundred years these very kings and nobles from across the channel were compelled to learn the Saxon, at first so much contemned, now converted into ENGLISH by the important changes just alluded to, which commenced as early as the middle of the twelfth century? In 1362, the new language thus formed was introduced into the courts and allowed to be used in pleading; all classes of society spoke it; poets employed it as the vehicle of their choicest thoughts; and English literature may be said to have had its origin.

How were Norman words gradually introduced? In what qualities did the educated Saxons find that the Norman language surpassed their own? What was the state of feeling among the Saxons a century after the Conquest? How far did this willingness extend? For what purposes did they draw on the language of their conquerors? Did the kings or the people carry their point? Two bundred years after the Conquest, what do we find? Into what was Saxon by that time converted? In 1362 what took place? In what localities were these changes soonest effected?

These changes, though covering in the kingdom at large a period of two hundred years, were in some parts much sooner effected. The greater the number and influence of the Norman inhabitants in any given locality, the sooner did Anglo-Saxon prejudices give way and the distinctive features of the French become blended with those of the vernacular.

§ 28. Conversion of Anglo-Saxon into English.-Marks of the successive changes to which allusion has been made, are evident in the few extant writings of the twelfth and the succeeding century. In the case of some of the productions of this transition period, critics have found it difficult to decide whether they should be classed among the latest specimens of Saxon, or the earliest of English, literature, bearing, as they do, the characteristics of each; they have, therefore, introduced the word SEMI-SAXON, which they apply to all writings between 1150 and 1250 A. D. Passing over a few works of minor importance, the Travels of Sir John Mandeville, written in 1356, may be called the first English book. Wicliffe's Translation of the Bible followed twenty-seven years afterwards, and did much towards fixing the unsettled forms of the new language.

The English of these early times, however, differs much from that of the present day. Even the poetry of Chaucer, who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth century, can not be understood without the aid of a glossary. Our language has not, to be sure, since the Norman invasion suffered any shock from the intermixture of conquerors, and their dialects; but its appearance is inuch changed, in consequence, not only of manifold simplifications in the spelling, but also of the disuse of many Saxon terms (one fifth of those current in Alfred's time being now obsolete), and the continual introduction of new words from the dead languages, as well as from the French, Italian, and Spanish. For scientific terms resort has generally been had to the Greek; and, as new discoveries have been constantly making since the Middle Ages, the additions from this source have been considerable. Commerce has also widely ex

§ 28. In what writings have we marks of these successive changes? What writings are classed as Semi-Saxon? What may be called the first English book? When was it written? What work followed twenty-seven years afterwards? How does this early English compare with that of the present day? What is said of Chaucer's poetry? Whence arises this difference? What part of the Saxon words

tended; and commodities formerly unknown have been introduced into common use, retaining in most cases their foreign names. Thus we have obtained the words camphor, arsenic, and many others. The changes and additions just mentioned, as well as a variety of modifications which are found to have affected, not only our own, but also every other modern tongue, have so altered the appearance of the later English that a close examination is necessary to convince the reader of its identity with the language of Chaucer.

§ 29. Changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into English.The principal changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into English, were,

I. Modifications and contractions in the spelling of words. II. The introduction of French terms, phrases, and idioms. III. The use of less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry.

IV. The omission of inflections or changes in the termination of the noun, and substitution of prepositions to express its relations to other words. This last-mentioned change is the only one of sufficient importance to authorize us in considering the new derivative as an independent tongue. It is an alteration which time very often brings about; and is, perhaps, to be attributed rather to the natural efforts of the people to simplify their grammar, than to the effects of the Norman Conquest or the new dialect it introduced. Observation shows that this tendency has by no means been confined to English. It seems to be a universal principle, that, the further we go back in the history of a given language, the more terminational changes we find in its nouns and verbs, and the fewer prepositions and auxiliaries.

current in Alfred's time are now obsolete? Whence have we obtained most of our scientific terms? How have we received the words camphor, arsenic, and many others? What is said of the effect of these alterations and additions?

§ 29. Mention the four principal changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into English. Which of these is the most important? How is it often brought about? To what is it attributable? Is this tendency confined to the English lan guage? The further we go back in the history of a tongue, what do we find ?

LESSON IX.

ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

§ 30. To recapitulate and enlarge on what has been said in the preceding lesson, it appears that our language, as it now stands, is composed of the following elements:

1. SAXON.-Of over one hundred thousand words, contained in our fullest dictionaries, nearly half are from this source; as are, also, our chief peculiarities of construction and idiom. Some of these it may be interesting to particularize. The inflection of our pronouns; the terminations of the possessive case and plural number, as well as of the second and third person singular of verbs; the syllables er and est, and the words more and most, by which we form the comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs; the suffix ly (derived from like), which enters into the formation of a large proportion of our adverbs,-all these are derived. from the Saxon. As to the words we have received from it, they are those which occur most frequently and are individually of the greatest importance: such as the articles a, an, the; all our pronouns; the adjectives oftenest used, especially such as are irregularly compared; the commonest adverbs of one syllable, how, now, then, and the like; nearly all of the numerous irregular verbs, as well as the auxiliaries, have, be, shall, will, &c.; and the prepositions and conjunctions, almost without exception.

Irregular nouns, adjectives, and verbs, are in every language among the oldest words, and are very likely to be those most used in common conversation; to which fact their deviation from regularity may often be traced. These, as we have seen, our Saxon ancestors gave us; to them,

§ 30. How many words are contained in our fullest dictionaries? Of these, how many are Saxon? What terminations have we received from this source? Which of our words are Saxon? Mention some of them. What is said of the irregular nouns, adjectives, and verbs in every language? What striking objects have received Saxon names? Whence come most of our abstract terms? Whence, the specifications under them? Give examples. What rich fund of words is almost

also, we owe the names of the striking objects which constantly meet our view, of sun and moon, land and water, hill and dale. While, moreover, we borrow from the Latin or French most of our abstract terms, the specifications classed under them are for the most part Saxon. Thus, Latin supplies us with the general term color; but to Saxon we are indebted for the particular varieties, white and black, blue and yellow, red and brown: from the former we get the comprehensive term to move; from the latter, the different kinds of motion, walking, running, leaping, springing, gliding, creeping, crawling, &c. Hence, too, the rich and necessary fund of words by which we express our feelings and passions as well as the relations which call them forth. These emotions the Saxons shared with all others of the human race, and the words which they employed in expressing them have come down to us almost without alteration. To this class belong the words love and hate, hope and fear, smile and tear, sigh and groan, weeping and laughter, father and mother, man and wife, son and daughter. Our common business terms, the language of the shop, the market, and the farm, have the same origin. Saxon, therefore, besides dictating the laws and furnishing the particles by which our words are connected, yields the most available terms for expressing the feelings, describing the objects of sense and imagination, and conveying the facts of every-day life.

2. NORMAN FRENCH.-From the time of the Conquest till the days of Chaucer, a period of three hundred years, this element played an important part in the formation of our tongue. First introduced by royal authority as the language of law, chivalry, and feudalism, and unwillingly received by the masses, it finally found its way into their affections, and was largely drawn upon for words in which the Saxon vocabulary was deficient. From this source it is estimated that at least five thousand words were added. Besides covering the abstractions and generalities of every-day life, they often convey slight distinctions and delicate shades of thought. We find them particularly useful, when we wish to express disapprobation without wounding the feel

entirely Saxon? Mention some. What other terms have the same origin? What portion, then, of its syntax and vocabulary does English owe to Saxon?

Between what periods did Norman French play an important part in the formation of our tongue? How was it first introduced? In process of time, how was it received by the people? How many words have we taken from this source? What do they convey with peculiar accuracy? When do we find them particularly useful? How is this explained?