inhabitant of the parish small sums, from twopence upwards, every week during the summer months, to keep an exact account of the money deposited, and to repay at Christmas to each individual the amount of his deposit, with one-third of that sum in addition, as a bounty on his economy. The next endeavours of the kind was made five years afterwards by Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield, who opened a bank at Tottenham, the managers of which agreed to receive small sums from the poorer classes and pay them a certain rate of interest on their deposits. But it was in 1810 that the system of Charitable Savings Banks seems to have been fairly set in motion. In that year the Parish Bank Friendly Society of Ruthwell was formed by Mr. Henry Duncan, who published an account of the institution, with a view to promote the establishment of others elsewhere. This was the first savings-bank, regularly and minutely organized, which was brought before the public; and it is doubtless owing to the successful example thus set, that in the course of a few years there were seventy savings-banks established in England, four in Wales, and four in Ireland.

6. In 1817, Government stepped forward to assist these charitable institutions, which had hitherto been such a source of loss to their conductors as to prevent them from becoming general. Not only had the conductors, whether trustees or managers, defrayed the cost of carrying on the business of the banks, but also, not unfrequently, they were unable to invest the money intrusted to them so as to get the interest which they themselves were paying to the depositors. To afford relief against this, Government undertook, on condition of the deposits being handed over to certain commissioners of their own, to guarantee the payment of a fixed rate of interest, without putting the conductors to the trouble of investment, and to return the principal to each depositor when required. A portion of the interest those who managed the bank were allowed to retain, to pay the salaries of the clerks and others they employed. Certain rules and regulations were prescribed by parliament to be observed in the management of all savings

banks; but in some respects each was allowed to act for itself. The following are taken from the rules of one of the principal banks, and may serve as a pretty fair specimen of those generally adopted :

"Deposits from 1s. to 30%. received from any depositor within the year."

"No one to be allowed to deposit more than 1507.” (That is, so soon as the principal of the sums deposited, over and above whatever the depositor might have withdrawn, amounted to 150/., no more would be received from him.) "When the interest on the deposits brought them up to 200l., no further interest allowed."

7. The object of these rules may easily be understood. Deposits so low as 1s. were taken, as it was thought that many of the poor might find difficulty in making up a larger sum at once; and if they attempted to keep it themselves until more could be added, the chances were they would be unable to resist the temptation of spending it. And no smaller deposits than 1s. were received, as it was believed that were such to be taken, the relative cost of management, as explained before, would become too great. In New York, however, there is a charitable savings bank where sums so low as sixpence are taken, and there not long since the deposits amounted to more than 10,000l. On the other hand, the reason why the deposits were not suffered to exceed a certain limit was, that without such a restriction persons not really poor might take advantage of the favourable terms meant solely to assist those who were So. The self-supporting banks, which are open to all, either allow no interest on deposits, or else much less than the charitable savings-banks. It is, in fact, no wonder that bankers who pay for all the work of managing their concerns, and yet expect to make profit, cannot afford so much interest on the money left with them, as those who get much of their work done gratuitously, and, besides, are not allowed to gain anything for themselves.

8. By a return published in 1832, the total amount of deposits in all the savings-banks in the United Kingdom was nearly 15,000,000l.; the number of depositors,

half a million; and the sum, on an average, held by each, 301. Each of the depositors, probably, on an average likewise, had not less than three persons depending on him; and thus we may conclude that about two millions of the poorer classes were placed beyond any immediate danger of want by the savings laid by in the banks. Ten years later, the total amount of deposits and number of the depositers had doubled; and as the population of the country had not increased nearly so much within the same interval, a gratifying test was afforded of a considerable improvement in their condition.

9. Charitable loan-funds, as well as savings-banks, have been established for the relief of the poor. But they have seldom turned out successful. In fact, though charity may make a safe guardian for the money of the poor, it is likely to make an indifferent lender. In proportion to the distress of the applicant is the desire to relieve excited; but those most subject to distress are often excessively dishonest, and find it difficult to induce persons of substance to give security for their repayment of what they borrow. They then offer as security persons like themselves, poor and dishonest; and the common result is that the loan if made is never recovered. Froin this and other causes, charitable loan-funds often go on badly, and are not very generally to be met with; and the poor in their difficulties must usually rely on the pawnbroker, who can lend with perfect safety, as, if the money he advances be not repaid within a certain time, he sells the pledge left in his shop and repays himself.

10. It is worth inquiring if it be not possible for savings-banks to be self-supporting, and capable of existing without the aid of charitable managers or state officials. The expense of managing small deposits, it is true, is considerable, but much of the cost of banking of every kind in England and Ireland results from imperfections in the law. Were these removed, it might be quite possible for savings-banks to be conducted on the self-supporting system. In Scotland, where the laws in this respect are far better, charitable savings

banks have never made much progress, and the humbler classes have deposits to a great amount in banks of the ordinary description. Such in time may come to pass in the rest of the United Kingdom; but as changes of such a nature are rarely brought about, except gradually, it is essential for the present to reform the existing savings-banks; and this, it may be hoped, can be done without much difficulty in the manner before suggested. R. H. WALSH.

Chemistry.

BY EDWARD FRANKLAND.

LESSON I.

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE.

1. THE study of every science necessitates an acquaintance with the system of names, and peculiar modes of expression, which have been found most convenient to denote the materials, and to describe the phenomena, which form its objects. Such system of names and modes of expression, together with their classification, form, as it were, the groundwork of the language of every science, upon the right employment of which depend the clearness and strict accuracy of scientific definition: few subjects connected with such a study are consequently of more importance to the pupil, than nomenclature and classification, and to these therefore we will now devote some attention.

2. The nomenclature of a science ought to be distinguished for its clearness and simplicity, but it is by no means easy to secure these conditions in a science like chemistry, where the rapid progress of discovery necessitates the continual addition of new names, and the frequent alteration of old ones. The name of a chemical substance should not only identify and individualise that substance, but it should also express the composition of the body, if a compound, to which it is applied. The first of these conditions is readily at

tained, but the second is much more difficult to secure, inasmuch as our ideas of the composition of chemical compounds-the mode in which they are built up as it were require frequent modification. It has therefore frequently happened that at different periods of the history of the science, the same substance has received different names ; the compound of chlorine and hydrogen, for instance, obtained by distilling common salt with sulphuric acid, first received the name spirit of salt at an early period, when it was supposed that there existed a certain analogy between the constitution of chemical compounds and the connection of the human body with the soul or spirit; at the same period the analogous names spirit of wine, spirit of hartshorn, spirit of nitre, &c., were invented.

Subsequently, when certain notions regarding the materiality and functions of heat-the so-called phlogiston thereof occupied the minds of chemists, spirit of salt became dephlogisticated marine acid, that is, acid of sea-salt deprived of its phlogiston, or material principle of heat. At a later period, when oxygen was regarded as the source of acidity, the name became oxymuriatic acid; and finally when Davy demonstrated the elementary character of chlorine, and the true composition of its compound with hydrogen, this body received its present title, hydrochloric acid. These repeated changes would not, however, materially inconvenience the young student, if the new names only of such bodies were employed; but unfortunately the old ones are also frequently made use of, and it is by no means uncommon, even at the present day, to hear the names spirit of salt and muriatic acid applied to hydrochloric acid on the other hand, the continued use of these old names is perhaps to a certain extent serviceable, in recalling to mind the views of the bygone periods of the science, and thus contributing to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge in historic chemistry. With the exception of these drawbacks, however, the present system of chemical nomenclature is sufficiently simple, and its thorough comprehension presents no formidable difficulties.