resisting medium through which the earth and moon move; but whatever it may be, there can be but one ultimate result for such a system as that of the sun and planets, if continuing long enough under existing laws, and not disturbed by meeting with other moving masses in space. That result is the falling together of all into one mass, which, although rotating for a time, must in the end come to rest relatively to the surrounding medium.

250. The theory of energy cannot be completed until we are able to examine the physical influences which accompany loss of energy in each of the classes of resistance mentioned above (§ 247). We shall then see that in every case in which energy is lost by resistance, heat is generated; and we shall learn from Joule's investigations that the quantity of heat so generated is a perfectly definite equivalent for the energy lost. Also that in no natural action is there ever a develop ment of energy which cannot be accounted for by the disappearance of an equal amount elsewhere by means of some known physical agency. Thus we shall conclude, that if any limited portion of the material universe could be perfectly isolated, so as to be prevented from either giving energy to, or taking energy from, matter external to it, the sum of its potential and kinetic energies would be the same at all times: in other words, that every material system subject to no other forces than actions and reactions between its parts, is a dynamically conservative system, as defined above (§ 243). But it is only when the inscrutably minute motions among small parts, possibly the ultimate molecules of matter, which constitute light, heat, and magnetism; and the intermolecular forces of chemical affinity; are taken into account, along with the palpable motions and measurable forces of which we become cognizant by direct observation, that we can recognize the universally conservative character of all natural dynamic action, and perceive the bearing of the principle of reversibility on the whole class of natural actions involving resistance, which seem to violate it. In the meantime, in our studies of abstract dynamics, it will be sufficient to introduce a special reckoning for energy lost in working against, or gained from work done by, forces not belonging palpably to the conservative class.

251. The only actions and reactions between the parts of a system, not belonging palpably to the conservative class, which we shall consider in abstract dynamics, are those of friction between solids sliding on solids, except in a few instances in which we shall consider the general character and ultimate results of effects produced by viscosity of fluids, imperfect elasticity of solids, imperfect electric conduction, or imperfect magnetic retentiveness. We shall also, in abstract dynamics, consider forces as applied to parts of a limited system arbitrarily from without. These we shall call, for brevity, the applied forces. 252. The law of energy may then, in abstract dynamics, be expressed as follows :—

The whole work done in any time, on any limited material system, by applied forces, is equal to the whole effect in the forms of potential

and kinetic energy produced in the system, together with the work lost in friction.

253. This principle may be regarded as comprehending the whole of abstract dynamics, because, as we now proceed to show, the conditions of equilibrium and of motion, in every possible case, may be derived from it.

254. A material system, whose relative motions are unresisted by friction, is in equilibrium in any particular configuration if, and is not in equilibrium unless, the rate at which the applied forces perform work at the instant of passing through it is equal to that at which potential energy is gained, in every possible motion through that configuration. This is the celebrated principle of virtual velocities which Lagrange made the basis of his Mécanique Analytique.

255. To prove it, we have first to remark that the system cannot possibly move away from any particular configuration except by work being done upon it by the forces to which it is subject: it is therefore in equilibrium if the stated condition is fulfilled. To ascertain that nothing less than this condition can secure the equilibrium, let us first consider a system having only one degree of freedom to move. Whatever forces act on the whole system, we may always hold it in equilibrium by a single force applied to any one point of the system in its line of motion, opposite to the direction in which it tends to move, and of such magnitude that, in any infinitely small motion in either direction, it shall resist, or shall do, as much work as the other forces, whether applied or internal, altogether do or resist. Now, by the principle of superposition of forces in equilibrium, we might, without altering their effect, apply to any one point of the system such a force as we have just seen would hold the system in equilibrium, and another force equal and opposite to it. All the other forces being balanced by one of these two, they and it might again, by the principle of superposition of forces in equilibrium, be removed; and therefore the whole set of given forces would produce the same effect, whether for equilibrium or for motion, as the single force which is left acting alone. This single force, since it is in a line in which the point of its application is free to move, must move the system. Hence the given forces, to which the single force has been proved, equivalent, cannot possibly be in equilibrium unless their whole work for an infinitely small motion is nothing, in which case the single equivalent force is reduced to nothing. But whatever amount of freedom to move the whole system may have, we may always, by the application of frictionless constraint, limit it to one degree of freedom only;—and this may be freedom to execute any particular motion whatever, possible under the given conditions of the system. If, therefore, in any such infinitely small motion, there is variation of potential energy uncompensated by work of the applied forces, constraint limiting the freedom of the system to only this motion will bring us to the case in which we have just demonstrated there cannot be equilibrium. But the applica

tion of constraints limiting motion cannot possibly disturb equilibrium, and therefore the given system under the actual conditions cannot be in equilibrium in any particular configuration if the rate of doing work is greater than that at which potential energy is stored up in any possible motion through that configuration.

256. If a material system, under the influence of internal and applied forces, varying according to some definite law, is balanced by them in any position in which it may be placed, its equilibrium is said to be neutral. This is the case with any spherical body of uniform material resting on a horizontal plane. A right cylinder or cone, bounded by plane ends perpendicular to the axis, is also in neutral equilibrium on a horizontal plane. Practically, any mass of moderate dimensions is in neutral equilibrium when its centre of inertia only is fixed, since, when its longest dimension is small in comparison with the earth's radius, gravity is, as we shall see, approximately equivalent to a single force through this point.

But if, when displaced infinitely little in any direction from a particular position of equilibrium, and left to itself, it commences and -continues vibrating, without ever experiencing more than infinitely small deviation in any of its parts, from the position of equilibrium, the equilibrium in this position is said to be stable. A weight suspended by a string, a uniform sphere in a hollow bowl, a loaded sphere resting on a horizontal plane with the loaded side lowest, an oblate body resting with one end of its shortest diameter on a horizontal plane, a plank, whose thickness is small compared with its length and breadth, floating on water, are all cases of stable equilibrium; if we neglect the motions of rotation about a vertical axis in the second, third, and fourth cases, and horizontal motion in general, in the fifth, for all of which the equilibrium is neutral.

If, on the other hand, the system can be displaced in any way from a position of equilibrium, so that when left to itself it will not vibrate within infinitely small limits about the position of equilibrium, but will move farther and farther away from it, the equilibrium in this position is said to be unstable. Thus a loaded sphere resting on a horizontal plane with its load as high as possible, an egg-shaped body standing on one end, a board floating edgewise in water, would present, if they could be realized in practice, cases of unstable equilibrium.

When, as in many cases, the nature of the equilibrium varies with the direction of displacement, if unstable for any possible displacement it is practically unstable on the whole. Thus a circular disc standing on its edge, though in neutral equilibrium for displacements in its plane, yet being in unstable equilibrium for those perpendicular to its plane, is practically unstable. A sphere resting in equilibrium on a saddle presents a case in which there is stable, neutral, or unstable equilibrium, according to the direction in which it may be displaced by rolling; but practically it is unstable.

257. The theory of energy shows a very clear and simple test for discriminating these characters, or determining whether the equilibrium

is neutral, stable, or unstable, in any case. If there is just as much potential energy stored up as there is work performed by the applied and internal forces in any possible displacement, the equilibrium is neutral, but not unless. If in every possible infinitely small displacement from a position of equilibrium there is more potential energy stored up than work done, the equilibrium is thoroughly stable, and not unless. If in any or in every infinitely small displacement from a position, of equilibrium there is more work done than energy stored up, the equilibrium is unstable. It follows that if the system is influenced only by internal forces, or if the applied forces follow the law of doing always the same amount of work upon the system passing from one configuration to another by all possible paths, the whole potential energy must be constant, in all positions, for neutral equilibrium; must be a minimum for positions of thoroughly stable equilibrium; must be either a maximum for all displacements, or a maximum for some displacements and a minimum for others, when there is unstable equilibrium

258. We have seen that, according to D'Alembert's principle, as explained above (§ 230), forces acting on the different points of a material system, and their reactions against the accelerations which they actually experience in any case of motion, are in equilibrium with one another. Hence in any actual case of motion, not only is the actual work done by the forces equal to the kinetic energy produced in any infinitely small time, in virtue of the actual accelerations, but so also is the work which would be done by the forces, in any infinitely small time, if the velocities of the points constituting the system were at any instant changed to any possible infinitely small velocities, and the accelerations unchanged. This statement, when put into the concise language of mathematical analysis, constitutes Lagrange's application of the principle of virtual velocities' to express the conditions of D'Alembert's equilibrium between the forces acting, and the resistances of the masses to acceleration. It comprehends, as we have seen, every possible condition of every case of motion. The 'equations of motion' in any particular case are, as Lagrange has shown, deduced from it with great ease

259. When two bodies, in relative motion, come into contact, pressure begins to act between them to prevent any parts of them from jointly occupying the same space. This force commences from nothing at the first point of collision, and gradually increases per unit of area on a gradually increasing surface of contact. If, as is always the case in nature, each body possesses some degree of elasticity, and if they are not kept together after the impact by cohesion, or by some artificial appliance, the mutual pressure between them will reach a maximum, will begin to diminish, and in the end will come to nothing, by gradually diminishing in amount per unit of area on a gradually diminishing surface of contact. The whole process would occupy not greatly more or less than an hour if the bodies were of such dimensions as the earth, and such degrees of rigidity as copper, steel,

or glass. It is finished, probably, within a thousandth of a second, if they are globes of any of these substances not exceeding a yard in diameter.

260. The whole amount, and the direction, of the 'Impact' experienced by either body in any such case, are reckoned according to the change of momentum' which it experiences. The amount of the impact is measured by the amount, and its direction by the direction of the change of momentum, which is produced. The component of an impact in a direction parallel to any fixed line is similarly reckoned according to the component change of momentum in that direction.

261. If we imagine the whole time of an impact divided into a very great number of equal intervals, each so short that the force does not vary sensibly during it, the component change of momentum in any direction during any one of these intervals will (§ 185) be equal to the force multiplied by the measure of the interval. Hence the component of the impact is equal to the sum of the forces in all the intervals, multiplied by the length of each interval.

262. Any force in a constant direction acting in any circumstances, for any time great or small, may be reckoned on the same principle; so that what we may call its whole amount during any time, or its 'time-integral,' will measure, or be measured by, the whole momentum which it generates in the time in question. But this reckoning is not often convenient or useful except when the whole operation considered is over before the position of the body, or configuration of the system of bodies, involved, has altered to such a degree as to bring any other forces into play, or alter forces previously acting, to such an extent as to produce any sensible effect on the momentum measured. Thus if a person presses gently with his hand, during a few seconds, upon a mass suspended by a cord or chain, he produces an effect which, if we know the degree of the force at each instant, may be thoroughly calculated on elementary principles. No approximation to a full determination of the motion, or to answering such a partial question as 'how great will be the whole deflection produced?' can be founded on a knowledge of the time-integral' alone. If, for instance, the force be at first very great and gradually diminish, the effect will be very different from what it would be if the force were to increase very gradually and to cease suddenly, even although the time-integral were the same in the two cases. But if the same body is 'struck a blow,' in a horizontal direction, either by the hand, or by a mallet or other somewhat hard mass, the action of the force is finished before the suspending cord has experienced any sensible deflection from the vertical. Neither gravity nor any

other force sensibly alters the effect of the blow. And therefore the whole momentum at the end of the blow is sensibly equal to the amount of the impact,' which is, in_this_case, simply the timeintegral.