Belcher; five European Geckos (Phyllodactylus europæus) from Italy, presented by Prof. H. H. Giglioli, C.M.Z.S.; a Cape Ant-bear (Orycheropus capensis) from South Africa, purchased.

INTELLECT IN BRUTES

WE have another batch of letters on this subject, the essential points of which we shall endeavour to give in brief space :Mr. Wm. Hogg tells us of an incident he witnessed when calling on Mr. W. H. Michael, a gentleman well known at the parliamentary bar, who resides at Queen Anne's Gate, St. James's Park. While they were sitting in the study, the French window of which communicates with a garden at the back of the house, and had a crank latch by which it could be opened on either side, a cat presented herself outside the window, pleading for admission. She continued to plead for some time, and finding no help from within she resolved to trust to her own powers. Eying the latch, which was four feet above her, she made a spring, caught hold of the crank with her fore feet, and putting her hind feet against the other half of the window as a fulcrum she pressed open the window. This she would do several times in succession. Mr. Michael informed Mr. Hogg that the cat had never been taught to do this.

D. R. S. sends the story of a little terrier that left her puppies only once a day to be fed, gulping down hurriedly a great quantity of porridge. Returning quickly to her family she would put up all the porridge in order that she and her puppies might together enjoy a hearty meal. When the terrier was scolded for a fault it rushed away to a little distance and catching up anything it could get hold of at once-a bit of stick, a straw, a slipper or anything at hand-it would come coweringly and lay it down at our feet, with an expression of utter submission. If we were not propitiated it would run off a second time and bring another peace-offering, often in its distress catching things would not at any other time have dared to touch.

M. W. T. writes :-A farmer, in Somersetshire, was going to a neighbouring village some three miles distant, and, not wishing to take his dog he ordered him home. The dog reluctantly obeyed. When the {man arrived at a spot, about half way on his road, where the short cut he had taken across the fields joined the more circuitous road, he found the dog waiting for him. Evidently the animal had taken the longer route, which he doubtless knew, calculating on meeting his master at that point, and thus gaining his end without hindrance.

Mr. John Harmer, of Wick, 'Arundel, possessed a few years ago a very fine and intelligent tom-cat which was much addicted to plundering a rabbit-warren about a mile from his home. After a time it was noticed that before he proceeded on one of his expeditions "Sam" completed his toilet by wallowing in the filth turned out of the tame rabbits' hutches, he taking particular care that his neck and breast should be in as disgusting a condition as possible by smearing them up and down till both were saturated and the fur all matted together.

Mr. J. J. Cole of Mayland, Sutton, Surrey, writes:-It has been my custom to have-not a letter-box in a door in the usual way but the plate and flap in the bottom of a window sash near. I had a cat which often saw a servant go to the window on hearing the flap moved by the postman, and which, when shut out used to jump on to the window sill and rattle the flap and when the servant was seen through the glass jump down to be let in at the door. I knew a horse which during week days went round and round to the left, grinding in the cellar of a snuff maker in London. On Sundays his owner turned him out in a field at his place in the country where the horse went round and round all day long unwinding himself the other way. Why?

Mr. B. G. Jenkins & cribes a scene he witnessed between the large insect known as daddy long-legs" and a small spider. The former got caught by one of its hind-legs by a pendant thread of cobweb about eight inches long, at the other end of which was the small spider. The spider cautiously descended on the thread, doubli g it as he came, and secured the insect's leg more firmly. He then ascended about three inches, and drew the insect up about half an inch; but a violent resistance on the part of the latter induced him to give up the attempt. He, however, went up the thread, strengthening it as he went, and coming down again to the same place, evidently attempted

once more to raise his prey, but without success, for the insect resisted so stoutly that it appeared to me to stretch the thread. The spider, Mr. Jenkins writes, saw clearly that the insect was too strong for him, that he would never be able to draw him up to the centre of his web, and that if he did not take very summary measures he would lose him altogether; so, on the principle that half a loaf is better than no bread, he set to work to secure a portion of it. The hind-leg of the insect, to which he had his web fastened, was composed of four jointed portions. Round three of these he busied himself weaving a web. Mr. Jenkins noticed particularly that he did not go up to the last jointed portion, that attached to the body. Having well secured these three, he moved up to the joint, and for a few moments appeared perfectly still. Suddenly the insect darted away, leaving three-quarters of its leg behind. What other explanation is there than that the spider disconnected it at the joint? Quietly ascending the thread, which he carried with him, and of course the leg as well, he properly placed the latter, settled down at the union of the two uppermost portions, gorged himself with juices from above and below, and then retired for the night.

Several correspondents express surprise at Mr. Henslow's position with regard to "abstract" and "practical" reasoning. They think that several of the instances adduced render that position untenable, and prove that in their degree the animals referred to showed themselves possessed of powers of "abstract" reasoning. With regard to the dog and bell story, Dr. Rae writes:-It was never intended to be understood that the dog associated the bell with "a particular maid," as Mr. Henslow puts it; any of the other servants would have done equally well. The dog could only show his reasoning powers by declining to ring the bell; for had he rung it, Mr. Henslow or any one else would naturally have said that the "brute" had shown no reasoning powers at all. Mr. Henslow has passed over without notice the fox and gun story, which, by his own definition, was as clearly a case of abstract reasoning as could be adduced, differing only in form of carrying into effect from what he would have recommended, which, if adopted by the fox, would have led to its destruction.

Dr. G. Frost sends the following good story :

In answer to Mr. Henslow's request for an example of "abstract reasoning" in the lower animals (NATURE, vol. xix. P. 433), I beg to subjoin the following:-Our servants have been accustomed during the late frost to throw the crumbs remaining from the breakfast table to the birds, and I have several times noticed that our cat used to wait there in ambush in the expectation of obtaining a hearty meal from one or two of the assembled birds. Now, so far, this circumstance in itself is not an 'example ofabstract reasoning." But to continue: For the last few days this practice of feeding the birds has been left off. The cat, however, with an almost incredible amount of forethought, was observed by myself, together with two other members of the household, to scatter crumbs on the grass, with the obvious intention of enticing the birds. I think Mr. Henslow might now be convinced that animals also possess in an inferior degree that boasted reasoning power which is generally supposed to belong to man alone.

THE PLANE OF POLARISATION ELECTROMAGNETICALLY ROTATED IN A VAPOUR

IT is known that Faraday did not succeed in proving electro

magnetic rotation of the plane of polarisation of light in gases, nor have others succeeded. Considering the interest attaching to this question, Herr Kundt and Herr Röntgen lately thought to repeat the attempt with very strong currents and under the most favourable conditions. The result is that they have been able to prove the rotation, at least in the case of sulphide of carbon vapour. (Their researches have been communicated to the Munich Academy.)

Sulphide of carbon was chosen because, on the one hand, it shows a strong electro-magnetic rotation in the liquid state, and on the other, its vapour has a considerable tension, even at low temperatures. An iron tube was used for inclosure and heating of the substance; it was closed at the two ends with glass plates I ctm. thick, and itself inclosed in a tin-plate tube; so that steam could be led between the tubes to heat the inner tube throughout to 100°. The outer tube was surrounded by six large wire-coils, each having 400 windings of wire 3mm. thick,

through which was passed the current from sixty-four large Bunsen elements. A little sulphide of carbon was introduced into the inner tube, and the air having been driven out by vapour forming at ordinary temperature, the tube was closed and fixed in position, and steam was sent through the space round it. When the whole tube had taken the temperature of boiling water the glass plates and the sulphide of carbon vapour within became quite transparent. A beam of light rectilinearly polarised by a Nicol was now sent through, and a Nicol at the other end extinguished it. The current of the sixty-four elements being now allowed to flow, a distinct brightening of the field was observed. The brightening became still greater when, after closing the circuit, the foremost Nicol was turned to darkness, and the current then reversed with a commutator. The rotation of the plane of polarisation occurred, as was to be expected, in the direction in which the positive current passed through the wire coils.

To test whether the rotation might not be due wholly or in part to the glass plates closing the inner tube, the experiment was made without any sulphide of carbon in this tube. A weak rotation, due to the glass, was indeed observed, much smaller than in the other case. To avoid this, however, as much as possible, the wire coils next the glass plates were shut out from the circuit. The four coils now traversed by the current were so far from the plates that their influence must have been very small, indeed the plates then gave no perceptible rotation. Sulphide of carbon having been again admitted, and the experiment repeated, there was a well-marked brightening as before, when the current passed. The amount was roughly estimated at half a degree.

It is thus proved that saturated sulphide of carbon vapour at about 100°, in the magnetic field, rotates the plane of polarisation of light.

Sulphuric ether was tried in the same way, but gave no effect. The authors consider it can hardly be doubted that, with suitable arrangements, the rotation may be demonstrated in the case of unsaturated vapours and gases. They are engaged in making an apparatus which will enable them to examine permanent gases at very high pressures in the magnetic field, in order to prove the rotation in their case, and, if possible, to measure the phenomenon. "It would be specially interesting," they remark, "to ascertain whether oxygen rotates the plane of polarisation in the same direction as other gases."

UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

or

A BROAD and liberal scheme has been published by the Cambridge Syndicate on the affiliation of local Colleges to the University as suggested in various Memorials. They have taken a large amount of evidence and have had interviews with deputations from Nottingham and Sheffield. They have also held conferences with a Committee of the Hebdomadal Council of the University of Oxford, with whom they find themselves in general agreement. The Syndicate recommend that application be made to the University of Cambridge Commissioners for the powers required to enable the University to affiliate local Colleges, and that the following conditions of affiliation be established by grace of the Senate. Any educational institution within the British dominions, in which the majority of the students are over seventeen years of age, may be admitted on condition that it be incorporated by Royal Charter, established on a permanent and efficient footing; that the University shall be represented on its Governing Body, and undertake the general conduct of its Examinations; and that the connection between the University and an affiliated College shall be established and shall be terminable by a grace of the Senate, or by a resolution of the Governing Body of the College. Persons who have completed an approved course of three years at an affiliated College, passing satisfactorily the Examinations connected with that course, will be entitled to receive a University Certificate, and if they obtain honours in the final Examina tion connected with that course, shall be excused the previous Examination; and provided they obtain a degree by one of the Tripos Examinations will be permitted to take their degree after only six terms' residence at Cambridge. In each College there are to be three examinations yearly, the Annual College Examination, the First and the Second Examinations, the Annual College Examination is to be held in subjects taught with the sanction of the University, in the College, and be open to those students

noly who have satisfactorily attended the teaching in these subjects. To pass the First Examination every candidate will be required to satisfy the Examiners in (1) Árithmetic; (2) Euclid, Books I., II, and III.; and Algebra, to Quadratic Equations inclusive; (3) One of the following languages: Latin, Greek, French, Italian, German. Candidates will be at liberty to take up more than one language, and one or more additional subjects, including Heat, Experimental Mechanics, Chemistry, Botany, and Mathematics. 4. The Second Examination shall include four groups: (1) Ancient and Modern Languages, two to be taken. (2) Mathematics, one higher subject, pure or applied, being required. (3) Natural Science. Candidates pass in Elementary Chemistry and Physics, and also in one of the following:-Higher Chemistry, Higher Physics, Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Comparative Anatomy with selected portions of Zoology, Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology with Classificatory Botany, Geology and Physiography, Mineralogy. Candidates to pass in (1) English Constitutional History and (2) Political Economy or Logic, and subjects connected with History, Literature, and Philosophy. A pass in one group will give a pass in this second examination, and honours may be obtained on the minimum number of subjects. The Syndicate think it desirable to avoid if possible increasing seriously the severe strain caused by the outside work of the University. The sections and groups of the senior and higher local examinations are in general correspondence with the scheme, and the lectures at the centres are under the superintendence of the Syndicate for conducting local xeaminations and lectures. Thus there is machinery in existence which may, with some modifications, be conveniently and properly used. It is thought desirable that the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge should, as far as practicable, act in concert in conducting this great scheme of affiliation. It is recommended that the scheme be so administered as to be self-supporting.

THE Cambridge Council of the Senate propose to repeal entirely the few unrepealed provisions in the will of Dr. Woodward relating to the Professorship of Geology, and to frame a new statute on a plan already approved for the Professorship of Chemistry. The same plan is likely to be followed with regard to the chairs of Anatomy, Botany, and Mineralogy, the nomination of half the Electoral Board in the case of anatomy falling to the Board of Medical Studies and in the other professorships named, to the Board of Natural Science Studies.

IN consequence of the greater importance to be given in future to the first part of the Cambridge Natural Sciences Tripos, held in June, a practical and oral examination is to be held then, two extra days being allowed for this.

THE Higher Senior Class of Mathematics in University College, London, which had been conducted by the late Prof. Clifford, has been intrusted during the summer term of the present Session to Mr. M. J. M. Hill, M.A., Fellow of the College, and fourth wrangler and bracketed equal Smith's prizeman this year at Cambridge.

DR. WITTROCK, the well-known algologist of Upsala, has been appointed lecturer on Botany, and curator of the botanical section of the museum at Stockholm.

THE commission of the Chamber of Deputies proposes to establish a compulsory system of education in France. Parents neglecting to comply with the provisions of the law are to be fined, and in certain cases to be sent to prison for a certain period. The expenses required for enlarging school accommodation and adding to the number of teachers are to be supported by the National Exchequer.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS

American Journal of Science and Arts, March.-In the opening paper Prof. Norton contends that under varying conditions the ultimate molecules of bodies are subject to changes in the intensity of their attraction or repulsion, at a given distance of neighbouring molecules (temperature and chemical constitution remaining constant). Evidence of this is found in the phenomena of permanent distortion of materials after temporary subjection to a force of stress; in observed changes in the mechanical properties of materials, through tension, pressure, heat, &c.; change of mechanical properties of a body through presence of minute quantities of other substances; and certain facts in chemical physics (phenomena of solution, allotropy, the nascent

state, &c.). The hypothesis is advanced, that the ethereal atmosphere condensed round an atom by its attractive action consists of an atmosphere of luminiferous ether, and an envelope of electric ether immersed within this for a certain depth, an ethereo-electric atmosphere, in fact.-Some observations on flocculation of small particles (or their tendency to form, under moderate agitation, granular aggregates or compound particles of larger size), are described by Prof. Hilgard, and have important physical and technical bearings, especially on points in agriculture.-Prof. Dawson points out what he considers defects and errors in the method of investigation pursued by Prof. Möbius recently with regard to Eozoon canadense, leading to a decision adverse to the organic character of that object.—Mr. White offers some remarks on the Jura-trias of Western North America; Mr. Fontaine continues his notes on the mesozoic strata of Virginia, and Mr. Bannister contends for the hypothesis of the transition character of the Rocky Mountain lignite series, or Laramie group. Some new species of anthozoa and cephalopoda added to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of North America, are described by Prof. Verrill; the cephalopoda have some specially interesting features.-Mr. Penfield gives analyses of triphylite.

Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 2.—In this number Herr Thoss communicates an interesting paper on artificial dichroism. He experimented (to produce it) in the three directions of making a coloured isotropous medium doubly refractive, colouring a doubly-refractive medium, and giving a colourless isotropous

medium both colour and double refraction. The last series were negative in results. In the first series, plates of gutta-percha, indigo, and chrysamminate of potash gave convincing proof that there is no difference between double refraction produced mechanically and double refraction in crystals. It was found impossible to produce dichroism with pressure in coloured glass. Colouring matter in crystals is considered the real producing cause of dichroism. The subject of quickly alternating electric currents is treated by Herr Oberbeck, who notes as an important fact the diminution of the resistance of liquids by increase in the number of alternations of the transmitted current in unit time; this occurs only when the number becomes high, and the average time of passage of one constituent molecule to its neighbour in the direction of the current can no longer be regarded as infinitely small in comparison to the duration of the current. The author describes experiments on alternating currents in two induction coils, variously connected, and finds in the phenomena certain analogies to vibrations of the nature of sound and light.-Herr Lubarsch endeavours to show that the faultiness of past experiments on fluorescence has arisen only from the first of three causes assigned by Prof. Lommel, viz., absorptive action of the fluorescent liquid on the fluorescent light, in observation of the liquid mirror. He finds evidence of the generality of this law: in all fluorescent substances the more refrangible limit of the derived spectrum coincides with the place of strongest absorption in the absorption spectrum, or (where this is not distinctly perceptible) with the place of strongest fluorescence in the fluorescent spectrum. Substances with double fluorescence, as chlorophyll (the phenomena of which he describes), are not excepted from the law.-Herr Rudorff describes a simple and convenient apparatus for determining the specific gravity of powdered substances; Herr Wiedemann and Herr Schulze, an arrangement with which can be proved the dissociation of hydrate of chloral at 100°; Herr Wiedemann, experiments yielding the result that by passage of electricity a gas may become luminous far under 100°, &c.-A large part of the number is occupied with the concluding part of Kohlrausch's paper on electric conductivity, &c., already referred to.

Journal de Physique, February, 1879.-The opening paper by M. Jamin, on complements to the theory of dew is followed by one in which M. Lippmann shows that the depolarising property of a metallic solution is limited to the same metal as it contains; and that this electric reaction may be applied, in several cases, in testing for a metal, as a convenient auxiliary of chemical analysis. The electric work expended to produce polarisation is stored (he contends) not in the form of chemical energy, but in that of electrical, as in a condenser.M. van der Mensbrugghe offers some remarks on measurement of the superficial tension of liquids, apropos of recent experiments by M. Terquem.-M. Gernez describes a method of observing the rotatory power of quartz at different temperatures, and which

seems to meet the difficulties of the case better than that of M. Joubert and other physicists. Two quartzes of contrary rotation are fixed at the two ends of a tube, and only one is heated. A universal support or electro-diapason for inscribing and showing in projection vibratory movements is described by M. Duboscq.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES
LONDON

Royal Society, March 27.-"On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. Part X." By W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in Owens College, Manchester.

The still existing differences of opinion respecting the botanical affinities of the Sigillariæ give value to every new fact calculated to throw light upon the question. In 1865 Mr. Edward Wunsch, of Glasgow, made a discovery, which proves to have an important bearing upon it. He found, at Laggan Bay, in Arran, a series of rather thin carboniferous strata, separated by thick beds of volcanic ash, and in one of the carboniferous shales especially, he discovered the bases of the stems of numerous very large trees standing perpendicularly to the shales. These the summer of 1877 Mr. Wunsch and I employed quarrymen to trees have been referred to by several authors as Sigillarian. In make extensive excavations amongst these strata, for the purpose of adding to the extensive series of specimens which he had obtained, and the whole of which he kindly placed in my hands. The aggregate result of these explorations was to show that the con clusion previously arrived at, viz., that the stems had belonged to a grove of Sigillarian trees, was unsupported by a solitary fact. These stems were of very large size, showing that they had belonged to fully grown trees. None of them displayed any traces of leaf-scars, having outgrown the stages at which such scars would remain visible. Their outer surfaces were scored with deep irregular longitudinal fissures, resulting from internal growth and consequent expansion, and which appear to have been mistaken for the longitudinal grooves and ridges of a Sigillarian bark. Such, however, they certainly were not, since, in every instance, the surface bark had been entirely thrown off, and the fissures entered deeply into the subjacent bark layer. In most of the stems this comparatively thin bark layer was the only one that remained, the greater portion of the inner bark and the central vascular axis having disappeared, leaving a large cylindrical cavity, which was filled up with volcanic ash. stems failed to display a single feature justifying the conclusion that they were Sigillarian.

These

In two of them the central cavity, instead of being filled with ash, was filled with (miscellaneous heaps of vegetable matter, amongst which were large fragments of the vascular axes of various plants, such as Lepidodendra and Stigmariæ, but in one of the largest stems were five or six decorticated vascular cylinders of Diploxyloid stems, of the largest size, and which, though arranged parallel to the long axis of the cylinder which inclosed them, obviously did not belong to them, but had been floated in from without. The supposition that these had been young stems that had grown within the hollow protecting cylinders, from spores, accidentally introduced, is wholly untenable, since each one of these several vascular axes has been the centre of a stem fully as large as that within which we found them aggregated. Of course, these Diploxyloid vascular axes had the organisation which Brongniart and the younger school of French botanists which still upholds his views on this point, believe to be characteristic of true Sigillariæ-a conclusion from which I have long dissented.

The only fragments we found, that threw any light upon the character of the leaf-scars that had indented the surfaces of these fully-grown stems, was a well-defined example of the Lepidodendroid type.

We directed careful attention to the nature of the smaller fragments of branches and foliage which abounded in the volcanic ash with which the large stems were overlaid. These consisted of Lepidodendroid branches and twigs of all sizes and ages, and no doubt was left upon my mind that they were really the disjecta membra of the stems around which they were so profusely scattered. The only fruits that have been obtained from the same locality are Lepidostrobi, most of which contain macrospores and microspores. Unless we are prepared to believe that this Arran deposit contained, on the one hand,

numerous stems without branches, and, on the other, yet more numerous branches without stems, we must recognise in these specimens the complementary elements of a grove of Lepidodendroid trees.

One specimen found is a very important one. It has a mean diameter of six inches, and is either a small stem or a very large branch. Internally it exhibits the same structure as all the smaller Lepidodendroid branches, except so far as it is modified But in addition to its other features, it exhibits by size and age. a very narrow exogenous ring surrounding the ordinary Lepidodendroid one, thus giving some clue to the size attained by such branches before the internal organisation passed from the Lepidodendroid to the Sigillarian type.

The important discovery by Mr. D'Arcy Thompson, of Edinburgh, of young branches of Ulodendron with reproductive cones actually attached to the scars characteristic of the genus, finally settles the nature and functions of these scars, showing that they mark the positions from which bilaterally arranged

deciduous organs of fructification have fallen.

The structure of Calamostachys Binneyana has had further light thrown upon it, sustaining my previously expressed convictions that it had a triquetrous axis, and that consequently its affinities were with Asterophyllites and Sphenophyllum, and not with Calamites. A specimen demonstrates that the six vascular bundles going to the six fertile sporangiophores were given off in pairs from the three truncated angles of a triangular vascular axis-an orientation absolutely indentical with that represented in similar sections of stems of Sphenophyllum, published by M. Renault. The recent discovery by Herr Stur, of Vienna, of a plant in which Sphenophylloid and Asterophyllitean leaves are found upon a common stem, establishes the correctness of my previous conclusions, as to the very close affinities of these two genera.

A large series of specimens from Oldham and Halifax has enabled me to investigate in detail the very curious objects to which Mr. Carruthers gave the name of Traquairia, and which

that observer believes to be a form of Radiolarian life. Their

very elaborate organisation can scarcely be made intelligible without the aid of plates. In a previous memoir (Phil. Trans. 1874, p. 56), I ventured to doubt the correctness of Mr. Carruthers' conclusions, and expressed my conviction that these objects resembled spores rather than protozoan skeletons. Further study of their details of structure has only strengthened this opinion which has also received the important support of Professors Hæckel and Strasburger, of Jena, both of whom have carefully studied my collection of specimens. These objects are small spheres-the sphere-wall of which is prolonged into a series of long radiating tubes not unlike the muricated species of a Cidaris. In their young state each murication gives off a delicate thread or threads, which ramified freely in an apparently mucilaginous or gelatinous, structureless, investing magma. In older specimens these threads developed into branching and radiating cylindrical tubes which, like the primary ones, had very thin walls. Within the outer sphere-wall, which consists of the coalesced bases of these branching tubes, were at least two other thin layers of membrane, and in several of the specimens the interior of the capsule is filled with cells, exactly like those seen in the corresponding cavities of Lycopodiaceous macrospores found in the Halifax deposits from which the finest Traquairie have been obtained. These objects differ consider, ably from all known reproductive structures; but I agree with Prof. Hæckel in his very decided rejection of them from the Radiolarian group of organisms, and with his conclusion that they are vegetable and not animal structures. Prof. Strasburger thinks it most probable that their affinities are with the macrospores of the Rhizocarpa.

Myriads of the vegetable fragments both from Oldham and Halifax are drilled in all directions with rounded insect or worm borings, and further traces of these zylophagous animals are seen in innumerable clusters of small Coprolites of various sizes, the size of those composing each cluster being uniform.

Desirous of verifying Count Castracane's alleged discovery of Diatoms in coal, specimens of twenty-two examples of coal from various localities in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Australia were reduced, after the Count's method, to a small residue of ash. This work was done for me in the chemical laboratory of Owens College through the kindness of Prof. Roscoe. Like Mr. F. Kitten, of Norwich, the Rev. E. O'Meara, of Dublin, and the Rev. G. Davidson, of Logie Coldstone, I have failed to discover the slightest trace of these organisms in coal.

The last objects described are some minute organisms from the carboniferous limestones of Rhydmwyn, in Flintshire, and which were supposed by Prof. Judd to have been siliceous Radiolarians from which the silica had disappeared and been replaced by carbonate of lime. I fail to find any confirmation of this conclusion. The objects appear to me to constitute an altogether new group of calcareous spherical organisms that may either have been allied to the Foraminifera or have had some affinities with the Rhabdoliths and Coccoliths. I have proposed for several species of the organisms the generic name of Calcisphæra. Myriads of objects of similar character, but of larger size, constitute the greater portion of a Corniferous limestone from the Devonian beds of Kelly's Island, U.S.A.

Additional light is thrown upon some Lycopodiaceous Strobili, fern-petioles, Sporocarpous or cryptogamic conceptacles, and other spore-like bodies, Gymnospermous seeds and stems.

Chemical Society, March 20.-Dr. Gladstone, president, in the chair. The following papers were read :-On plumbic tetrethide, by E. Frankland and A. Lawrance. The authors prepared this compound by adding plumbic chloride to zinc-ethyl, and distilling the product in a current of steam. Ammonia, carbonic anhydride, carbonic oxide, cyanogen, nitric oxide, oxygen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, do not act on this substance at ordinary temperatures; sulphurous anhydride converts it into plumbic ethylsulphinate.-Prof. W. Foster gave a verbal coma white amorphous mass, consisting of diethylsulphone and munication on the production of the higher oxides of iron, chromium, manganese, and bismuth. When the salts of the above metals are treated with an alkaline solution of sodic hypobromite, ferrates, chromates, permanganates, &c., are formed, oxygen being evolved. Copper sulphate solution, when mixed with the hypobromite solution, evolves oxygen at ordinary temperatures. -On the decomposition of water by certain metalloids, by C. F. Cross and A. Higgin. The authors conclude that pure sulphur decomposes water, uniting both with its oxygen and hydrogen; the decomposition is independent of atmospheric oxygen. without action on water at 100o. Vitreous phosphorus does not Amorphous phosphorus decomposes lead acetate solution, but is decompose water at 100° when air is excluded.-On the volumetric determination of chromium, by W. J. Sell. To the boiling solution containing chromium, acidified with sulphuric acid, permanganate is added until a pink tint remains after boiling for three minutes; the manganese is precipitated by the addition of sodium carbonate and alcohol, and filtered off; the chromic acid in the filtrate is then determined by iodine and hyposulphite. The author also gives details of a method of fusing chrome iron ore, by means of which an estimation of the chromium can be made in an hour and a quarter.

Geological Society, March 12.-Henry Clifton Sorby, F.R.S., president, in the chair.-Lazarus Fletcher, Arthur Samuel Hamand, William J. Pope, and George W. Slatter, were elected Fellows of the Society.—The following communications were read:-On perlitic and spherulitic structures in the lavas of the Glyder Fawr, North Wales, by Frank Rutley, F.G.S. He mentioned the fact that the lavas of Bala age in Wales were generally vitreous, and instanced some remarkable cases of spherulitic structure from that district. Prof. Judd stated that among the most ancient rocks of the north-west of Scotland were lavas showing spherulitic and fluidal structure. These were also common in the old red sandstone lavas. He thought that as the spherulitic, perlitic, and fluidal structures were in rocks of modern date confined to vitreous varieties, the inference was safe, when applied to ancient rocks, that they were once glass. Dr. Sheibner asked if an analysis of the rock had been made. If the rock was a true perlite, there should be about 80 per cent. of silica. If the rock was altered, one might expect a large excess of magnesia. Prof. Ramsay said that the character of the e lava-flows was evident even with out microscopic examination. He recapitulated the evidence which had persuaded him of this when surveying the district, and expressed doubt as to the rocks at the base of the Cambrian in North Wales being true lava-flows. Dr. Hicks said he thought there wa no reason why a perlitic structure should not occur in rocks of Bala age. He thought the first spherulitic rocks recognised in this country had come from rocks of Arvonian age at St. David's. Mr. Bauerman said that modern lava-flows often cover very large areas, as in North America and India; so the mere distance of the Wrekin from Wales would be no difficulty. Mr. Rutley doubted whether spherulitic structure was

always connected with vitreous. He did not see that the presence of magnesia would prove or disprove alteration. He did not think a rock could be vitreous if solidified at a great depth, since it would hardly be able to cool with sufficient rapidity. The gold-leads of Nova Scotia, by Henry S. Poole, F.G.S., Government Inspector of Mines. The author remarked upon the peculiarity that the gold-leads of Nova Scotia are generally conformable with the beds in which they occur, whence Dr. Sterry Hunt and others have come to the conclusion that these auriferous quartz veins are interstratified with the argillaceous rocks of the district. With this view he does not agree. He classified the leads in these groups according to their relations to the containing rocks, and detailed the results of miningexperience in the district, as showing the leads to be true veins by the following characters :-(1) Irregularity of planes of contact between slate and quartz; (2) The crushed state of the slate on some foot-walls; (3) Irregularity of mineral contents; (4) The termination of the leads; (5) The effects of contemporary dislocations; (6) The influence of strings and offshoots on the richness of leads. The author further treated of the relative age of the leads and granite, and combated the view that the granites are of metamorphic origin, which he stated to be disproved by a study of the lines of contact. He also noticed the effects of glaciation on the leads, and the occurrence of gold in carboniferous conglomerate.-On conodonts from the Chazy and Cincinnati groups of the cambro-silurian, and from the Hamilton and Genesee-shale divisions of the devonian, in Canada and the United States, by G. Jennings Hinde, F.G.S. After a sketch of the bibliography of the subject, the author described the occurrence of conodonts. In the Chazy beds they are associated with numerous Leperditia, some trilobites, and gasteropods; in the Cincinnati group with various fossils; and in the devonian strata principally with fish-remains; but there is no clue to their nature from these associated fossils. They possess the same microscopic lamellar structure as the Russian conodonts described by Pander. The various affinities exhibited by the fossil conodonts were discussed; and the author is of opinion that though they most resemble the teeth of myxinoid fishes, their true zoological relationship is very uncertain. The paper concluded with a classification of the conodonts from the above deposits.-On annelid jaws from the cambro-silurian, silurian, and devonian formations in Canada, and from the lower carboniferous in Scotland, by G. Jennings Hinde, F.G.S. After referring to the very few recorded instances of the discovery of any portions of the organisms of errant annelids as distinct from their trails and impressions in the rocks, the author noticed the characters of the strata, principally shallow water deposits, in which the annelid jaws described by him are imbedded. A description was given of the principal varieties of form and of the structure of the jaws. They were classified from their resemblance to existing forms under seven genera, five of which are included in the family Eunicea, one in the family Lycoridea, and one among the Glycerea. The author enumerated fifty-five different forms, the greater proportion of which are from the Cincinnati group.

Meteorological Society, March 19.-Mr. C. Greaves, F.G.S., president, in the chair.-The following were elected Fellows of the Society:-R. Burniston, W. H. Crawford, J. Davies, The Earl of Derby, H. Downs, S. Egar, J. S. Hodgson, S. Hollins, T. M. Hopkins, H. Horncastle, C. W. Johnso, E. M. Nelson, and F. Wilkin.-The papers read were:-Dew, mist, and fog, by George Dines, F.M.S. The author has during the last two years made a number of experiments to determine the amount of dew that is deposited on the surface of the earth. The plan adopted was as follows:-Glasses similar to ordinary watch-glasses were procured; the surface area and the weight of each was ascertained. These glasses were exposed to the open air in the evening, being placed on different substances, viz., on grass, on slate, and on a deal board, the two latter being raised a few inches above the grass. A minimum thermometer was generally placed by the side of each glass. It is only on rare occasions that an amount of dew exceeding the o'oro inch in depth has been deposited upon the measuring glasses, and out of 198 observations, in only 3 has that amount been exceeded. Fifty-eight observations give the amount from o'oro to o'005 inch : : 107 from 0'005 to 0.001 inch; 22 less than 0.001 inch; and 8 observations no dew at all. The author thinks it may be fairly assumed that the average annual deposit of dew upon the surface of the earth falls short of 1'5 inch. There are two kinds of mist, the morning and evening; the morning mist is

caused by the evaporation from the water and the moist ground taking place faster than the vapour is taken away; the air becomes saturated, but this does not stop the evaporation; the vapour continues to rise into the air, is there condensed, and forms mist, which gradually spreads over a wider surface. The evening mist is produced as follows:-The cold on the grass caused by radiation lowers the temperature of the air above it; the invisible vapour of water previously existing in the air is in excess of that which the air can retain when the temperature is lowered; the surplus is condensed, becomes a mist-cloud, and floats in the air just above the surface of the grass. Taken either separately or combined, the mists appear to the author totally and altogether inadequate to account for those dense fogs which at times overspread large tracts of country. Dense fogs near the earth are often accompanied by a clear sky above, when the sun may be seen reflected from the gilded vanes of our public buildings. After long consideration the author is inclined to attribute these fogs to some cause at present unknown to us, by which the whole body of the air to some distance above the surface of the earth is cooled down, and, as a consequence, part of the vapour in that air is condensed and forms what has been called an "earth-cloud."—On the inclination of the axes of cyclones, by the Rev. W. Clement Ley, M.A., F.M.S. The object of this paper is to call attention to the evidences recently afforded by the results of mountain observations to the theory that "the axis of a cyclone inclines backwards." The author first reviews the state of the question up to the present time, and details his own investigations, chiefly founded upon the movement of cirrus clouds; he then refers to Prof. Loomis's recent "Contributions to Meteorology," in which is discussed the observations at the summits and bases of several high mountains, the results of which fully confirm the theory that the axis of a cyclone inclines backwards. The discussion on this paper was adjourned till the next meeting.-Contributions to the meteorology of the Pacific. No. III. Samoan or Navigator Islands, by Robert H. Scott, F.R.S.

dent, in the chair.-New Member, Capt. Hastings R. Lees, Physical Society, March 22.-Prof. W. G. Adams, presiphotographic records of absorption spectra. Absorption spectra R.N.-Capt. Abney, R.E., F.R.S., read a paper on obtaining copying; but the discovery by Capt Abney of a silver salt sensihave hitherto been recorded by the difficult method of handtive to all rays in different degrees renders the photographic method available. The records thus obtained are photographs of the spectrum of the naked light of the source and of that of the same light reduced by insertion of the absorbing material in its track, and these are taken parallel, so that the dark absorp tion lines can be readily compared. Examples of these were thrown by him on the screen. This method can be used as a new weapon in attacking solar physics and determining whether or not compound bodies exist in the sun. Absorption spectra to compare with the sun can be got for compound bodies by burning the matter in question in a flame in front of the slit and passing a bright light through the flame.-Prof. Guthrie, F.R.S., then read a paper on the fracture of colloids, as illustrated by experiments on the breakage of glass plates either by pressure or heating at the centre or round the circumference. Circular plates of glass, pressed at centre or circumference, break in radial lines. However supported, a plate breaks in the same fashion if heated in the same way. If heated in the middle the crack is peakshaped, like an obelisk on a double pedestal, two cracks forming the outline, with sometimes a third down the middle. The two cracks unite before they reach the edge on one side, and (as afterwards pointed out by Prof. W. G. Adams) the three extremities of the two cracks all meet at right angles to the edge. The crackage varies with the size and shape of the plates, the flame, and kind of glass; but the type is the same for all. Cracks cross each other. Prof. Guthrie defined a crack as the line where the ratio of cohesion to strain is least, and likened it to the lightning flash. Mr. W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., said that he had observed once a volute spiral crack in dried hydrated silicic acid, and recommended Prof. Guthrie to study cracks in agate, which is the most perfect colloid known.

GENEVA

Society of Physics and Natural History, November 6, 1878.-M. Raoul Pictet read a paper on temperature and on the general synthesis of all calorific phenomena. The purpose of this research is to prove the absence of rigorous definition of the word "temperature," the petitio principii on which the construc