1. A Musical Sound is called a Tone.

2. Every tone has the three properties of Length, Pitch, and Power.

3. There are, therefore, three departments in the Elements of Music:

1. Rhythmics, treating of the Length of Tones.
2. Melod'ics, treating of the Pitch of Tones.
3. Dynam'ics, treating of the Power of Tones.

The word Rhythmics is derived from the Greek rb "rheo," meaning to flow, as in the measured ovement of poetic lines. Melod'ics is from the reek "melodeo," to sing harmoniously, or "media," a tune to which lyric poetry is set, a choral ng, from "mel' odos," musical or melodious. Dyam/ics is from the Greek "dun'amai," to be able, "dun'amis," force, energy, power.

Rhythmics comprehends all rhythmic things, or hatever may be derived from the primary fact that ones may be long or short. It includes also the hythmic structure of phrases, sections and periods. Melodics includes everything that may proceed from he primary distinction of low or high, or from the property of pitch. The word " 'melody," as commonly used, is of much more limited signification, eferring only to a pleasing succession of tones in hythmic order or to an ordinary tune form. Dyamics embraces not only the mere force of tones, but also their manner or form of delivery.

A character called a Breve, or Double-Note, is -sometimes used. "It represents a tone twice as long as that represented by a Whole Note.

6. Rests are characters used to indicate silence. 7. The following are the Rests in common use; the relative length of the portions of time which they represent, corresponds to that of the notes; it is indicated by their names; the whole rest may also represent a whole measure rest without regard to the kind of time:

WHOLE-REST. HALF-REST QUARTER. EIGHTH, SIXTEENTH. oror

For brevity and convenience, we shall hereafter speak of the length of notes, meaning the length of the tones represented by them.

8. A Dot placed after a note or a rest increases its length one-half. A dotted whole note is equal to three halves; a dotted half to three quarters. The same is true of Rests. Thus :

12

10. The Figure 3 placed above or below three equal notes reduces their length to two of the same kind. Thus, equals in length Notes written in this manner arc called Triplets.

11. Two or more notes may represent a single tone by the use of a character called a Tie. In vocal music the hooks attached to the notes may be joined for the same purpose, and the notes should be sung to one syllable. The Slur is used when the notes differ in pitch, the Tie when they are of the same pitch.

MEASURES AND PARTS.

12. Music is divided into Measures and Parts-into Measures by single bars and into Parts by double bars. The time of each measure is the same as that of every other measure in the part and is determined by the fraction placed at the beginning of each part. If a part is to be repeated, dots, called Repeating Dots, precede the double bar.

13. Measures are again divided into certain parts, which may be indicated to the ear by Counting, as "one, two," "one two," etc.; or to the eye by motions of the hand, called Beats, or Beating Time. The length of notes may frequently be estimated, but in complicated movements, it must be indicated as above by some simple method of measurement.

14. A Measure divided into two parts is called Double Measure; three parts, Triple Measure; four parts, Quadruple Measure; six parts, Sextuple Measure. Thus:

The pupil should, of course, be taught that a Measure may be filled with other notes than those used in the above examples. Let him fill the measures with notes of different lengths, rests, etc. As will be seen, a piece of music may begin on any part of a measure. When it begins on a fractional part, it ends on a fractional part; and the two parts thus formed equal a complete measure.

16. The Numerator of the Fraction at the beginning of the above examples indicates the number of beats into which the measure is divided; the Denominator indicates the kind of note which will fill each beat. Thus, 34 shows that there are three beats in the measure, and that a quarter note will fill each beat.

17. The limits or boundaries of Measures, as has been said, are marked by light vertical lines, called Bars, the end of a Part being marked by a heavy vertical line, or Double Bar.

18. The end of a line of poetry in hymnal music is also sometimes indicated by a heavy vertical line, or Double Bar, which can have no effect upon the

measure.

character called a close of music is indicated by

a a Close.

20. Beating Time is designating each part of a Measure by a motion of the hand. In Double Measure, the hand moves down, up; Triple Measure, down, left, up; Quadruple Measure, down, left, right, up; Sextuple Measure, down, left, left, right, up, up; or in rapid movement, down, up. This may vary according to the taste of the instructor, each having his own method of indicating accent.

21. Counting Time is designating each part of a Measure by a number. In Double Measure, we count one, two; Triple Measure, one, two, three; Quadruple Measure, one, two, three, four; Sextuple Measure, one, two, three, four, five, six; or one, two. The exercises of beating and counting time are very valuable, and should be practiced frequently. Beating time requires motions of the hand at exactly equal points of time; counting time requires counts at exactly equal points of time. It is common to speak of tones "as so many beats long," or "so many counts long.' When the leader tells which way the hand is moving, he is said to be describing the time. Select melodies from the book for the purpose of affording variety of practice. Let the class be divided into parts, singing and counting or beating time alternately. Ability to count inaudibly should be acquired as soon as possible, for this is essential to success.

22. Accent is a stress given to certain parts of the Measure. In Double Measure, the first part is accented; in Triple Measure, the first part; in Quadruple Measure, the first and third parts; in Sextuple Measure, the first and fourth parts. In measures containing two accents, the first is the principal and therefore louder. The accents may fall away when followed by a rest, and may be changed when followed by a longer note, this note receiving the accent and being therefore called a Syncopated note. These rules are, however, becoming somewhat obsolete in vocal music, the accented syllables and emphatic words determining the parts to be accented.

23. A Syncopated Note, then, is one that begins on an unaccented part of a measure and continues on an accented part. Thus, in

the

second is a Syncopated Note, or a Syncope, and should always be accented, that is, expressed forcibly, as if so marked.

24. The length of the beats in each Measure is

indicated by certain Italian words, sometimes modified by other words added thereto, of which the fol lowing are the most common:

Adagio Very slow movement.

Allegretto-Cheerful, not so fast as Allegro.
Allegro-Quick, lively, vivacious.
Andante-Rather slow, gentle, distinct.
Andantino-Somewhat quicker than Andante.
Largo-Very slow and solemn.
Larghetto-Less slow than Largo.
Lento-Slow.

Moderato-Moderate.
Presto-Very quick.

Prestissimo-With greatest rapidity.

MELODICS: Pitch of Tones.

THE STAFF.

25. The Staff is used to represent the relative pitch of Tones. It consists of five lines and four spaces, each line and space being called a degree. Thus the staff contains nine degrees and the sentence. "Name the degrees on which these notes are found," means "Name the lines and spaces on which these notes are found."

26. Added lines are used to represent tones which are too high or too low to be represented upon the Staff. They may be placed above and below the staff to any extent desired, as they are simply a continuation of the staff, the note immediately above or below the Staff being in a Space.

27. The lines and spaces of the Staff are named from the lowest upwards, 1st line, 1st space, 2d line, 2d space, etc.

28. The added lines and spaces are named from the first line, space below, 1st line below, etc.; and from the fifth line, space above, 1st line above, etc.

1st line above. 5th line. 4th line..

3d line. 2d line. 1st line.

2d space above. 1st space above.

4th space.

3d space.

2d space.

1st space.

1st line below.

1st space below. 2d space below.

Female voice are an octave higher than those of the Male, hence a Soprano solo sung by a Tenor sounds an octave lower than the notes in which it is written.

32. The different parts are commonly represented in music by two or more staves, united by a Brace, and called a Score.

33. The Absolute Pitch of Tones (the pitch independent of scale relationship), is designated by the letters naming the degrees of the Staff; as, A, B, C, D, E, F, G. The position of these letters is fixed and unchangeable while the clef remains unchanged.

34. The difference of pitch between any two tones, as from A to B, from A to E, from C to G, etc., is called an Interval. A true knowledge of intervals can only be communicated through the Ear. The pupil must listen carefully to tones and compare them constantly. Without this practical acquaintance with the subject, names, definitions and illustrations are of little account.

35. In the regular succession of the Natural Tones, there are two kinds of intervals, larger and smaller. The larger intervals are called Tones and the smaller Semi-Tones. The successive tones of the major scale, in all the keys, occur in the following order: Between one and two, a tone; between two and three, a tone; between three and four, a semi-tone; between four and five, a tone; between

five and six, a tone; between six and seven, a tone; and between seven and eight, a semi-tone. These two half-tones in the octave afford infinite variety in music. Were the eight natural sounds in the octave equidistant one from another, there being no semi-tones, the keys would differ only in acuteness and not in quality, as now. Choose melodies from the book in the different keys and give the pupils exercise in reading these intervals of tones and semi-tones.

36. Between any two tones of the Staff having the interval of a step, another tone may be inserted, dividing the step into two half-steps. Thus, a tone may be inserted between C and D, etc. Some singers of Southern Europe add a certain brilliancy of effect by again dividing the half-step; but ability to do this is not possessed by the people of Central or Northern Europe, or of America.

37. The degrees of the Staff represent these inserted tones by the aid of characters called Sharps and Flats. Thus, a tone inserted between C and D, is named C sharp, or D flat.

38. A Sharp,, placed on a degree, raises the pitch of a tone a half-step; a Flat, 2, placed on it, lowers the pitch of a tone a half-step below that named by the letter.

39. The power of a sharp or a flat may be cancelled by a character called a Natural, .

4

4

DE

The Staff in the Bass clef extends from G to A. Three notes intervene between this and the staff in the Treble, which, as will be seen, may be written in either clef, above the Bass or below the Treble. Of these, the middle note (c) is known as " Middle" C— because midway between the two clefs. The treble clef extends from e to f'. All the letters below G in the bass and e in the treble, occupy places in successive order downwards on the added lines and spaces below the staff; all above A in the bass and f' in the treble on the added lines above the staff. "Middle C" (c) corresponds to the fourth note on the G string of the violin at ordinary concert pitch, or to Middle C on piano or organ. Great Double C, or Contra C, as it is called, having about thirty-three vibrations to the second, the next higher C doubles that number; and so on, each octave higher doubling the number of vibrations of the octave next below it.

The entire range of the human voice in music-from lowest Bass to highest Soprano-may be reckoned from Eb below the staff in the bass clef, four octaves, to Eb above the staff in the treble clef. Vocal sounds lower or higher than this seem to have little power of expression in any sense. Voices are usually considered under three divisions for the male, and four for

the female sex; Bass, Barytone, and Tenor, Contralto, Alto, Mezzo Soprano, and Soprano. The usual range of the Bass is from F or E below the bass clef, rarely lower, two octaves to f; Barytone, from G, on first line of bass clef, two octaves, to g; Tenor, from C, two octaves, to c'; Contralto, the deepest female voice, from F to c', being two and one-half octaves; Alto, two octaves, from F to f"'; Mezzo Soprano, from A to a'; and Soprano from "Middle C" (c), two octaves to c", which is also indicated as c2. Middle C has about 132 vibrations to the second, and is produced by sound waves from eight to nine feet apart. Waves at half that distance apart, produce a tone one octave higher, half that again the next higher octave, and so on. In large organs, C, an octave below Contra C, with 161⁄2 vibrations per second, is reached, but the effect is imperfect. The piano reaches a1, with 3,520 vibrations per second, and sometimes c5, with 4,224 vibrations. The highest note taken in the orchestra is probably d3, on the piccolo flute, with 4,752 vibrations. The practical range in music is from 40 to 4,000 vibrations per second, embracing seven octaves. The human ear is, however, able to compass eleven octaves, that is to say, it notes vibrations ranging from 161⁄2 up to 38,000 in a single second of time.

40. A Double Sharp, *, is used on a degree affected by a sharp, to represent a tone a half-step above the one affected by the sharp; its power may be cancelled by a sharp and natural, . A Double Flat, 2, is used on a degree affected by a flat, to represent a tone a half-step below the one affected by a flat; it may be cancelled by a flat and natural, 24.

41. The Signature of a Staff is the part between the clef and the fraction; it is named from the number of sharps or flats which it contains. If there is no signature, the notes correspond with the white keys of piano or organ.

42. A sharp or a flat in the signature applies not only to the degree on which it stands, but also to all others which represent the same pitch.

43. A sharp, a flat, or a natural, placed outside the signature, is called an Accidental,-appearing "accidentally" in the measure-and applies only to the degree on which it stands.

44. If not cancelled, as stated above, the signification of a signature extends to the end of the Staff; that of an accidental-whether flat, sharp or natural— extends no farther than the measure in which it appears, except when the last note of a measure is flat or sharp, and the first note of the following measure is the same letter; then, if it is syncopated, the influence of the accidental extends to that note.

THE DIATONIC SCALE.

45. The Relative Pitch of tones is indicated by a Scale, or Tone Ladder.

46. The Diatonic Scale, generally called the Scale, consists of a regular succession of intervals from the key-note to the octave, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, or octave, it having been found most agreeable to join to the seven sounds of one group the first of the next higher, making eight in all. The key-note is the first note in the Scale. This Scale is also called the Major Scale, to distinguish it from another scale, having its semitones in different order, and called the Minor Scale. In the compass of the scale there are five whole tones or degrees and two semi-tones or half-degrees. Commencing on C, that is making C one of the scale, these semi-tones are found between the 3d and 4th and 7th and 8th degrees. Here we find between the 1st and 3d degrees two whole tones, making a "major" or greater third. All music written on the scale when so constructed is said to be in the major keys; and this scale can only be formed from the notes in their natural order by commencing on C. There is, however, another series of notes, equally well-fitted for expressing musical ideas, which is formed by commencing on A instead of C, and which, in the natural order of tones, can begin only on A. In this scale the semi-tones always fall between 2 and 3 and 5 and 6. Here between the 1st and 3d degrees there are not two whole tones, but only a tone and a half, making the "minor" or lower third. All music written on the scale when so constructed is said to be in the minor keys, which are often most expressive.

47. The tones are named by Numbers and also by Syllables, the latter to afford greater variety of vowel sounds for practice, as well as to form an easy association of degree name and relative pitch of tone-the same syllable being always used in singing the same tone. Do is always one, Re always two, and so on. The numbers and syllables are as follows: By numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. By syllables: Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do. (Pronounced Doe, Ray, Mee, Fah, Sole, Lah, See, Doe.)

The names of the notes, Do, Re, Mi, etc., vibrate throughout the scale, their places depending wholly upon the location of the Key-note, which is always called Do, and numbered one.

48. There are, as has already been said, two kinds of intervals in the Diatonic scale: Steps and Halfsteps, the intervals between 3 and 4, and 7 and 8, being half-steps, while all the others are steps. The half-steps, or semi-tones, should always be sung "sharp," the voice being slightly pressed or driven above, rather than permitted to fall below the tone indicated by the note upon the staff.

49. In writing the Scale, any tone may be taken as one, or Do; when this is determined, the others must follow in regular order. In the examples below, one or Do is placed on C, as the intervals of the staff, beginning with C, correspond with those of the scale. All the steps in the key of C are therefore natural steps. As shown in the following examples, the scale is extended upwards, by regarding eight, or the octave above one, as one of an upper scale; and downwards, by regarding one as eight of a lower scale.

50. The Scale, as written upon the staff, in the key of C, in both clefs, is as follows:

51. The fact that these Eight Degrees include every possible distance except the none and deceme (ninth and tenth), at which musical tones can be placed from each other, was discovered some centuries ago in Italy. When sung consecutively the thought of ascending or descending a ladder was naturally suggested, and the term "Scale" (Italian word Scala, meaning "ladder,") was adopted. The propriety of the name has caused it to be retained by musicians. The order of tones being a "ladder," the distances between them are naturally called steps. The tones of the Scale can only be learned by imitation.

The Scale or Tone Ladder may be drawn or neatly painted on the blackboard for permanent use in the form here shown, six or eight inches wide and eighteen high, which will afford spaces three inches in height to represent tone intervals, and one and a-half inch spaces for the semi-tones. Let the scale names and numbers be given as here. The exercises should be written by the side of the scale in bold figures. Commas may be used after the figures to indicate short notes, and the dash for notes prolonged. With the pointer, the teacher can direct the work of the class more readily, singing the exercises backwards as well as forwards, by numbers, by syllables, by letters, and by simple vowel sounds.

The following exercises which may be placed upon the board, as well as sung from the page, will afford much variety of useful practice. They may be greatly varied, and supplemented by others to almost any extent. But it is advised that, at first, they be taken in the order here presented, in short lessons, so that nothing is passed that is not well learned. Let this drill exercise be pleasantly varied by rote singing-attractive songs and familiar hymns being preferred