be killed, for the sake of good food and nourishment, the law enjoined that kind of death that was the easiest, and forbade them to be tortured by a cruel and lingering mode of slaughtering; or to have their nostrils slit; or to have any limb cut off, as we have already shown.-In a similar manner it was forbidden "to kill a cow or ewe, and her young, both in one day," (Levit. xxii, 28,) lest the young one should happen to be killed before the dam, which would have caused her the greatest grief, for in this case there is no difference betwixt the grief of men and that of irrational animals, the love of a mother to her infant not being the effect of reason but of instinct, which is found in most animals as well as in man. This injunction referred particularly to cattle and sheep, because these were the only domestic animals lawful to be eaten, and of which they could distinguish with certainty the mother from her young. The cause already mentioned gave rise also to the precept respecting birds' nests, (Deut. xxii, 6, 7,) for the eggs on which the dam is sitting, or the young ones which have need of her, are not, in general, permitted to be eaten; and when the dam is let fly, she is not distressed by seeing her young ones carried off; it, therefore, frequently happens that all are untouched, because that which might be taken may not be lawfully eaten. If the law then be thus careful to prevent beasts and birds from suffering pain and grief, how much more mankind!

The precept of covering blood, (Levit. xvii, 13,) we have already shown, refers to both wild beasts and clean birds.

As the law gave various precepts relative to forbidden meats, so likewise it enjoined precepts respecting lawful and unlawful Vows. (Num.xxx.) For persons sometimes said, "This bread is forbidden me," or "This flesh is forbidden me;" thus rendering it unlawful for them to eat those things; and this was done by them, in order to acquire, by this means, the virtue of contentment or continence, and to restrain an immoderate appetite : and hence, the saying, that vows are the hedge of separation, that is, of abstinence, or of a holy and sanctified life. But since women are apt to act too hastily, through the ardour of their minds, great inconveniences, dissensions, corruptions, and confusions might be occasioned in families, if the right of making vows rested with themselves, by one kind of food being lawful for the husband but unlawful for the wife, or lawful for the daughter but unlawful for the mother; therefore, the authority was given to the head of the family in every thing which might produce advantage or injury. There was, however, this exception, that every woman who was in her own power, having neither husband nor father, and who had attained the years of maturity, possessed the same right of vows as the man. (Numb. xxx, 9.)

The cause and reason of the precepts relating to the Nazarite, (Numb. vi,) that is, of abstinence

from wine, is evident; for wine has, in many instances, both of former and latter ages, been the occasion of death to multitudes, and "many strong men have been slain by it;" (Prov. vii, 26;) the Prophet also remarks, "They have erred through wine." (Isaiah xxviii, 7.)-It was the peculiarity of the Nazarite to abstain from every kind of drink made from the vine, that he might be thereby advanced to greater honour, and learn to be content with the things that were necessary. He, therefore, who thus abstained, was accounted holy, and placed in equal dignity. with the High-Priest as to sanctity, not daring to pollute himself for his deceased father or mother. Such was the honour arising from abstinence from wine. (121)

CHAPTER XXIV.

Of the Causes and Reasons of the Precepts of the fourteenth Class.

THE precepts included in the fourteenth class, are those which we have reviewed in the tracts Of Women," and "Of prohibited Marriages, and Incest."-The precept of "Circumcision" also must be referred to this class.

In the preceding pages we have indicated the general scope and intention of these precepts, and now descend to the particulars of them.

It must be acknowledged by every one, that man during the whole of life stands in need of friends, as Aristotle has shown in the ninth bookof his Ethics. (122) In prosperity, their company and conversation are pleasant; in adversity, needful; and in old age, advantageous. It is, however, principally among children and relatives that we meet with such love and friendship; and, among them only, that brotherly affection and mutual benevolence are perfected. For when a family are connected with each other by the same parents or ancestors, we generally find friendship, benevolence, and love reigning amongst them; and to promote these is one of the primary objects of the law.

REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES.

311

On this account Harlots were prohibited. (Levit. xix. 29;-Deut. xxiii. 17.) For, by permitting them, families would have been confounded and destroyed, and their children have been regarded by all men as aliens, and have been disowned and neglected by their kindred and neighbours: and what misfortune worse than this could possibly befal them?-Public brothels were therefore not allowed among the Israelites, that lust and wantonness might be checked, and the evils arising from them repressed. (123) Among the benefits resulting from this prohibition, it should also be noted, that it prevented many quarrels and contentions. For if prostitution had not been forbidden, it would frequently have happened that different men, meeting at the same time and place, would have contended for the same woman, and violent quarrels, if not murder either of the men or of the prostitute, would have ensued ; for so says the Scripture, (Jer. v. 7,)" They assembled by troops in the harlots' houses." (124) To guard, therefore, against such evils, and to preserve the distinctions of families, harlots, and whoremongers were condemned, and only public marriages allowed; for if even private marriages had been permitted, some would have been found who would have introduced women into their houses, and called them their wives. It was, therefore ordained, that if a man had privately espoused a woman, the marriage should afterwards be publicly cele