(m. f.); pălumbes (m. f.), palumbus (m.); passer (m.); pāvo (m.); perdix (m. f.); pica (f.); stūrnus (m.); struthŏcămēlus (m. f.); turdus (rarely f.); turtur (m. f.); vultur (m.).

Reptiles: e. g. anguis (m. f.); būfo (m.); chamæleon (m.); 321 colüber (m.), colubra (f. also of snakes generally); crocodilus (m.); drăco (m.); lăcertus (m.), lacerta (f. also of lizards generally); rāna (f.); serpens (m. f.); stellio (m.); testūdo (f.).

Fishes: ǎcipenser (m.); mügil (m.); muræna (f.); mullus (m.); piscis (m.); rhombus (m.); sălar (m.); scărus (m.); sŏlea (f.).

Invertebrates: ǎpis (f.); cĭcāda (f.); ǎrāneus (m.), aranea (f. also of spiders generally); cimex (m.); cùlex (m.); formīca (f.); hirudo (f.); lendes (pl. f.); limax (f. rarely m.); mürex (m.); musca (f.); papilio (m.); pědis (m. f.); půlex (m.); sēpia (f.); vermis (m.); vespa (f.).

3. Almost all trees and shrubs are feminine. Some of them 322 have -o stems (§ 336), but these are mostly from the Greek.

Of plants and flowers, some are masculine, the rest chiefly feminine.

Names of fruits and woods are often neuter, with stems in -0, and some trees are also neuter, probably because the name was first applied to the product.

The principal masculine names are: ǎcanthus, ămărăcus (also f.), asparagus, bōlētus, călămus, carduus, crocus, cytisus (also f.), dùmus, ficus (also f.), fungus, helleborus (often -um n.), intŭbus (also intŭbum n.), juncus, lõtus (usually f.), mālus (but as an apple tree f.), muscus, Ŏleaster, pampinus (also f.), raphănus, rhamnus, rubus, růmex (also f.), scirpus.

The principal neuter names are ǎpium, ǎcer, balsămum, läser, pǎpāver (also m.), piper, rōbur, siler, siser (but in plural siseres), tuber (truffle): and the fruits or woods arbutum, buxum, &c. (but castǎnea, Ŏlea, bălănus, are also used as fruits, and retain their fem. gen. So buxus and buxum for a flute).

4. Names of jewels are mainly feminine and Greek. Masculine are ădămas, beryllus, carbunculus, chrysolithus (also f.), onyx (as a marble, or a cup), õpălus, sardonyx (also f.), smăragdus, &c.

323

5. Names of towns, countries, &c. have, if of Latin origin, their 324 gender marked by their termination; e. g. masculine; Veii, Puteoli, properly the Veians, &c.: feminine; e. g. Africa (sc. terra), Itǎlia, Rōma: neuter; Tarentum, Běněventum, Reāte, Præneste, Anxur (n. also m. of the mountain), Tibur (n.).

Of Greek nouns many retain their Greek gender (though often with stems in -o), others, owing sometimes to their termination being misunderstood, have other genders: e. g. Argos usually neut., but Statius has frequently patrios Argos, afflictos Argos, &c.; Livy occasionally Argi, as nom. pl.

The Spanish towns are sometimes feminine in -is, e. g. Illiturgis ; sometimes neuter in -i, e. g. Illiturgi.

Some neuter plurals are found; e.g. Leuctră, Artaxătă, Tigranocertă.

6. Names of mountains are all masculine, except those with 325 marked feminine terminations (stems in -a or Greek -e); e.g. Ætna, Ida, Rhodŏpē, &c.; or neuter terminations (nom. in -um, Greek in -e); e.g. Pēlion, Sōractě. Alpes (pl.) is feminine.

7. Names of rivers are masculine, even those with a stems, except Allia, Duria, Sagra, Lethē, Styx, which are feminine. But sometimes rivers are made neuter by prefixing flumen and giving a termination in -um; e.g. flumen Rhenum (Hor.); flumen Granīcum (Plin.); &c.

8. Names of winds are masculine; e.g. ǎquilo, Vulturnus, &c. So also Etesia (pl.).

All indeclinable words are neuter: e. g. fas, nefas, instar (except 326 barbaric names, e. g. Abraham); and to this class belong infinitives (e.g. non dolere istud, totum hcc philosophari); words used as names of themselves (e. g. istuc 'taceo,' hoc ipsum 'honesti'); and often the letters of the alphabet (as 'c in g commutato'); but these last are sometimes feminine, litera being expressed or understood.

CHAPTER III.

OF NOUN INFLEXIONS OF NUMBER.

IN Latin the only distinction in point of number which is 327 marked by inflexions is between one (singular number), and more than one (plural number).

The particular inflexions of number will be best treated in connexion with the case inflexions,

Some nouns, in consequence of their meaning, have no plural, others have no singular.

I. The following have ordinarily no plural:

(a) Proper names of persons and places; e.g. Metellus, Roma, &c.; 328 but Metelli of several members of the family; Camilli of persons with qualities like Camillus: Galliæ, of the two divisions of Gaul, Gallia Cisalpina and Transalpina; Volcani of gods with different attributes, or bearing the name of Vulcan, or of statues of Vulcan, &c.

(b) Single natural objects; e. g. sol, the sun; tellus, the earth; but soles is used in discussions as to whether there are more suns than one, or as equivalent to days, &c.

(c) Continua; i.e. natural objects which are measured or weighed, not numbered, e.g. cruor, blood; ros, dew; æs, bronze; frumentum, corn; făba, beans, as a class; fumus, smoke. But these are used in the plural, when several kinds, or distinct pieces or drops, are meant; e.g. vina, different wines; nives, flakes of snow; fåbæ, individual beans; æra, bronze quorks of art; carnes, pieces of flesh; fumi, wreaths of smoke. In poetry the plural is sometimes used without such a distinction.

(d) Abstract nouns; e.g. justitia, justice; but not uncommonly the plural is used even in these in order to express the occurrence of the event or exhibition of the quality at several times or in several forms, e. g. virtutes, virtues; cupiditates, desires; odia, cases of hatred; conscientiæ, several persons' consciousness (of guilt); mortes, deaths (of several persons); otia, periods of rest; adventus, arrivals; maturitates, culminations; vicinitates, position of people as neighbours; lapsus, slips; calores, frigora, times of heat, of cold; similitudines, resemblances; &c.

2. The following are found only or ordinarily in the plural; 329 though some of them correspond to what in other languages are denoted by singulars.

(a) Names of certain towns or places, &c.: Theba, Tigranocerta, Leuctra, Veji (originally the Veians), Cannæ (i.e. Reeds): Gades, Cumæ. So Pergama, the towers of Troy, Tartara.

(b) Groups of islands and mountains, &c.; e.g. Cyclades, Alpes, Esquiliæ, Tempe (properly glens).

(c) Bodies of persons: e.g. decemviri, a commission of ten (though we have decemvir also used of a commissioner) &c.; majōres, ancestors; procères, primores, leading men; lībĕri, children; inferi, the spirits below; supĕri, the Gods above; cœlites, the heavenly ones; penates, the hearth gods; manes, the ghosts; gratiæ, the Graces; Furia, the Furies; Dire, Curses (conceived as goddesses); &c.

(d) Parts of the body; e.g. artus, the joints; cervices (before Hortensius), the neck (neckbones?); exta, intestīna, viscera, the internal organs; fauces, the throat; lactes, the lacteal vessels; pantices, bowels; rēnes, kidneys; tori, the muscles; præcordia, midriff; ilia, loins.

(e) Names of feasts or days; e.g. Calendæ, Nōnæ, Idus; feriæ, 330 the feast-day; nundinæ, market-day; Bacchānālia, feast of Bacchus ; &c.

(f) Other collections of things, actions, &c.; altāria, an altar; ambages, evasion (but § 415); angustiæ, straits (sing. rare); argutiæ, subtlety; antes, rows, e.g. of vines; arma, tools, esp. weapons, armour; armamenta, ship's tackling; balneæ, the baths, i.e. bathhouse; bīgæ, a carriage and pair (sing. not till Sen.); cancelli, railings; casses, a hunting net (properly meshes, cf. § 432); castra, a camp (properly kuts, tents? castrum is found only as part of proper names, e.g. Castrum Novum); clathri, a grating; claustra, bars (sing. in Sen. Curt. rarely); clitellæ, a pack saddle (panniers?); compĕdes, fetters (but § 446); crepundia, child's rattle, &c.; cũnæ, cunabula, incunabula, cradle; dēliciæ, delight; divitiæ, riches; excubiæ, the watch; ěpůlæ, a dinner; exsequiæ, funeral procession; exiviæ, things stripped off, spoils; facētiæ, jokes (sing. rare); fălæ, scaffolding; fasti, the Calendar; föri, benches; fraces, oil dregs; grātes, thanks (§ 418); indutiæ, a truce; ineptiæ, silliness (sing. in Plaut. Ter.); inferie, offerings to the shades below; infitias, denial (cf. § 369); insidiæ, ambush; inimicitiæ, hostility (rarely sing.); lǎpicīdinæ, stone quarries; locŭli, compartments, and so box, bag, &c.; lustra, a den; mănŭbiæ, booty; minæ, threats; monia, town walls; nugæ, trifles; nuptiæ, marriage; obices, bolts (but § 439); părietinæ, ruins; phălĕræ, horse trappings; præstigiæ, juggling tricks; prèces, prayers (but § 438); primitiæ, first fruits; pugillares, writing tablets; quadrīgæ, a carriage and four (sing. not till Propert.); quisquiliæ, refuse; reliquiæ, the remains; rēpāgula, bolts, &c.; salīnæ, saltpits; sǎta, the crops; scale, stairs; scope, a broom; sentes, thornbush; serta, a wreath; sordes, filth (sing. rare § 421); suppětias, supply (cf. § 369); těněbræ, the darkness; therme, the warm baths (cf. balnea); tesqua, wastes; valvæ, folding-doors; vepres, thorns (but cf. § 430); vindiciæ, claims; virgulta, bushes; utensilia, necessaries.

Some of these words are used in one or two cases of the singular. See the references.

3. The following words are used in the plural with a special 331 meaning, besides their use (in most instances) as an ordinary plural:

ædes sing. a temple, plur. a house (properly, hearths, chambers?); ǎqua, water; aquæ, a watering-place: auxilium, assistance; auxilia, means of assistance, auxiliary troops: bonum, a good; bona, goods,

i.e. one's property: carcer, a prison; carceres, the barriers (in horse races): codicillus, a small piece of wood; codicilli, writing tabiets: copia, plenty; copiæ, supplies, troops: comitium, the place of tribesassembly at Rome; comitia, the assembly: fides sing. a harpstring, plur. a stringed instrument: fortuna, fortune; fortunæ, one's possessions: gratia, thankfulness; gratiæ, grātes, thanks: hortus, a garden; horti, pleasure-gardens, a country house: impedimentum, a hindrance; impedimenta, baggage: littera, a letter (of the alphabet); litteræ, a letter, i.e. epistle: lūdus, a game; lūdi, Public Games: nātālis, a birthday; nātāles, one's descent: opěra, work; operæ, workmen: Ops, a goddess; opem, help; opes, wealth, resources: pars, a part; partes, a part on the stage: rostrum, a beak; rostra, the tribune or pulpit at Rome: tăbŭla, a plank; tăbŭlæ, account books.

CHAPTER IV.

OF CASE INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL.

IN Latin the distinctions of case are in the singular five, the 332 cases being named nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative. In some nouns with stems in -o, besides others derived from the Greek, a sixth form, (not properly a case, cf. § 1007), generally called the vocative is also found.

In the plural there are only four; viz. nominative, accusative, genitive, and a common form for the dative and ablative.

Another case, distinguished in some other languages, called the locative, is in Latin always the same in form, as either the genitive, dative, or ablative.

A similar confusion of forms is found between some of the other cases in some classes of nouns. Originally perhaps there was a different form for each case in each number.

Nouns and pronouns, whether substantival or adjectival, may 333 be conveniently divided according to their case inflexions (called collectively their declension) into two great classes, containing respectively

I. Nouns with stems ending in -a, -e, or -0.

II. Nouns with stems ending in -u, -1, or a consonant.