CHARACTER: in the oldest inscriptions П (but not after cir. 620 62 U.C.), then P, last P.

SOUND: always the sharp labial mute; English p. Never aspi- 63 rated, except in Greek words; e. g. sphæra, philosophus.

POSITION: never final, except in volup (for volupe). It can 64 stand immediately in same syllable

1. before 1 or r; e.g. plaudo, prandeo, &c.

2. after s; e.g. spatium, splendor, sprevi, &c.

REPRESENTATION: (i) of Greek 1. π (ps for ): e.g. пνeνμа- 65 TIKós, pneumaticus; ПIroλeμaîos, Ptolemæus; √áλλw, psallo; &c.

2.

rarely ß; e.g. Opíaμßos, triumpus (later triumphus).

3. frequently φ; e. g. πορφύρα, purpura; Δίφιλος, Πάμφιλος, Poveikηs, Dipulus, Pampilus, Pilonices; Papvákys, Parnaces; &c. almost always in inscriptions before cir. 660 U.C. (see § 132).

1 In the following account of each letter, the term Representation has been confined to the way in which one language transcribes the words borrowed from another: Correspondence to the etymological correspondence, i.e. the shape which the same stem, though forming perhaps a verb in one and a noun in another language, assumes in sister languages. The instances of correspondence are almost all selected from Curtius, Griech. Etym. 2nd ed. Influence is used for the way in which a letter affects others, weakness for the way in which it is affected by others. The sound is inferred from the facts here collected. Throughout, great help has been obtained from Corssen's Aussprache, &c., and in some parts from Luc. Müller's De re metrica.

(ii) in Greek by π; e.g. Papirius, Пaπeípios (also Пaπíρios); capitolium, κажιтáλov; Spurius, Σπóρios; Appius, "Аππιos; &c.

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to an original Indo-European p.

2. to Greek π; e.g. răpio, ápπ-á(w; septem, érтá; păc-iscor, pang-o, pig-nus, πýу-vνμι, aor. éπăу-ην; patег, πатýр; imple-o, plenus, πί-μ-πλη-μι, πλήθω; pannus, πῆνος; pullus, πώλος; palma, πaλáμn; něрos, neptis, ȧvévios; pisum, Tiσos; pilleus, îλos; pluo, πλέω, πλύνω; pus, puteo, putris, πνεω, πύθω; pulmo, πνεύμων, πλεύμων; &c.

3. to Greek ; e.g. căput, căpillus, kepaλý; ops, äpevos.

4. to Greek ẞ in pasco, Bookw.

5. rarely to Greek κ. So probably lupus, Auкos; spŏlium, σκύλον; sapes, præsepis, σῆκος.

Possibly these Latin words may have been borrowed from the Umbrian or Oscan, in which p often corresponds to an original k.

66

SUBSTITUTION: p is often a substitute for b; e. g. sup-porto 67 for sub-porto; op-timus for ob-timus; scrip-si, scrip-tus from scrib-o; op-sides (in early inscriptions) for ob-sides; &c.

INFLUENCE: 1. before p the prepositions sub, ob, ad become 68 sup, op, ap in pronunciation, though not always in writing; e. g. supporto, op-portunus, ap-pello; &c. Possibly this was the original form of sub, ob (compare super, éπí).

2. requires a preceding nasal to be m, not n; e.g. impar, com-porto; &c. ru-m-po compared with fu-n-do.

WEAKNESS: 1. changed (cir. 650 U.C.) to b before 1 in the 69 word publicus, for poplicus, from populicus (old form pouplicos). So Publius is IIónλtos in Polybius and Dion. H.).

2. becomes m before a nasal suffix; e.g. som-nus compared with sop-or, sōp-io. And comp. trèpidus with tremo.

INSERTION: 1. P is naturally pronounced in passing from 70 m to t or s or 1; e.g. sum-p-tus, sum-p-si; em-p-tus, em-p-si; temp-to for the (etymologically better) form ten-to; hiem-p-s for hiems; exem-p-lum, from exim-ĕre; tem-p-lum, comp. réμevos. In ampsancti, am-p-lus, the p may be for b in amb-.

2. In late imperial language we have dam-p-num, calum-pniare, &c.

B.

CHARACTER: similar to modern B.

SOUND: the flat labial mute; English b.

In later Latin inscriptions, not frequently before the 4th century A.D., words were written with v for b, chiefly between vowels (e.g. devitum, sivi, Lesvia, verva), and b for v (e.g. bolo, berba, bixit; hence Danubius for the earlier and correct Danuvius), one or both having then perhaps the sound of labial v. The confusion is also found in the MS. of Gaius, and in the Florentine MS. of the Digest. Flabio, Jubentius are rare instances from the 2nd century after Christ.

POSITION: Final only in ab, sub, ob.

It can stand immediately in same syllable before 1 or r; e.g. blandus, brevis, brūma, &c.

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72

73

REPRESENTATION (i) in Greek by B; e. g. Aboriginum, 74 ̓Αβοριγίνων; Umbrici, Ομβρικοι; Bovillani, Βοΐλλανοί; &c.

(ii) of Greek: 1. ordinarily ß; ßáois, basis; Bolwrol, Bœoti; &c.

2. For and Ennius always used b, at least in the words Burrus for Πύρρος, and Bruges for Φρύγες (Cic. Or. 48, § 160). Probably Ennius was following the etymological correspondence (see next section).

CORRESPONDENCE: I. to an original Indo-European b or bh, 75 or, in the middle of a word, to an original dh.

2. to Greek ẞ; e.g. brevis, ẞpaxús; bulbus, Boλßós; balare, βληχάομαι.

3. medial b to Greek (frequently); e.g. amb-, dμpí; ambc, ἄμφω; ab, ἀπό; 1äbor, ἀλφ-άνω; umbo, umbilicus, ὄμφαλος; nubes, νέφος; orbus, ὀρφανός; sorb-eo, ῥοφέω; glubo, γλύφω, scribo, Ypupw. So probably the derivative suffix -ber, (comp. fero) to -pópos, (Pépw); e.g. salu-ber, candēla-brum.

4. to Greek ; e.g. buxus, Túέos; carbasus, kάржаσоs; lambо, 1öbium, λάπτω, λαφύσσω.

5. medial b to Old Italian f; e.g. tribus, Umbr. trefu; stabulum, Umbr. stafu; tibi, Umbr. tefe; sibi, Oscan sifel,

SUBSTITUTION: 1. It is in several words a substitute for an 76 earlier dv. Thus bis, bellum, Bellona, Bellius, bonus are for dvis, dvellum, Dvellona (so in S. C. de Bacchan. 568 A.U.C.), Dvellius, dvonus (dvonoro i.e. bonorum in epitaph on Scipio, son of Barbatus,

cir. A.U.C. 500). C. Duellius the consul of 494 A.U.C. is said to have been the first of the family called Bellius1 (Cic. Or. 45, § 153).

2.

In a few words, it stands for medial v in order to avoid the combination uu. Thus bubile, bubulcus from bovile, bobulcus, when o was giving place to u (§ 213); deferbui from deferveo; jubeo from a root jou- (comp. old perf. jousi, jūro).

INFLUENCE: It requires the preceding nasal to be m; e. g. com- 77 buro compared with conduco; im-buo with in-duo; im-berbis, combibo, &c.

WEAKNESS: 1. Before a sharp (s or t), b is sometimes changed 78 to p; e. g. scrip-si, scrip-tus from scrib-o; op-sequi for ob-sequi; optineo for ob-tineo, &c. In compounds with sub, ob, the inscriptions before cir. 650 U.C. have p; later inscriptions and MSS. oscillate. So occasionally urps, pleps for urbs, plebs. But in os-tentum, suscipere, sustuli, asporto, &c. b in subs is omitted.

2. Before c, sub and ob are assimilated; e.g. suc-curro, occumbo, &c.

3. Before f, ab takes the form au; e.g. aufugio, aufero; (but abs-tuli, ab-latum); or b is dropped; e.g. afui, aföre. (On af see § 97 n).

4. In Ŏmitto, Ŏperio (if they are compounds) the b is omitted. [Some consider the dat. abl. in -is to have arisen from an omission of b (or bh), filiis being for filiabus.]

5. b becomes m before a nasal suffix; e.g. sum-mus for submus (for sup-imus); scam-num compared with scab-ellum; samnium (Ɛavviris Polyb.) with Sabini. So perhaps glōmus is for glob-mus.

M.

CHARACTER: In a few of the oldest inscriptions before 500 U.C. 79 the modern shape with the middle strokes not reaching to the bottom is found, but not afterwards. The usual form has the four strokes of equal length and all inclined, not vertical. Verrius Flaccus (in Augustus' time) wished to use only half the ordinary letter as its sign at the end of words before an initial vowel, on account of its faint sound.

SOUND: the labial nasal; English m.

At the end of words it appears to have been scarcely audible.

80

POSITION: very frequently final: viz. 1. in 'accusative and 81 neuter nominative singular, and in genitive plural of nouns: 2. in

1 In Polybius, I. 22, 23, we read Biλios; (but the MSS. have Aißios or 'ATiMos Aißios). Diodorus (XI. 68) has Aoviλios.