1st person singular of verbs; 3. in some adverbs; e.g. tum, quam, nam, clam, autem, enim, partim, &c.

Never before or after another consonant as the commencement of a syllable.

REPRESENTATION: (i) in Greek by μ; e.g. Marcius by Mápkios, 82 Viminalis by Oviμivádios; &c.

(ii) of Greek μ; e.g. Mapaðŵv, Marathon; #рaɣμarıкós, pragmaticus; &c.

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to Indo-European m.

2. to Greek μ; e.g. simul, similis, apa, óμoîos, oμados; vŏmo, čμ-ew (Feμ); mol-lis, μàλăkós; me, μe, éμé; magnus, măgis, μέγας, μέγιστος; mel, μέλι, mor-ior, mor-tuus, mar-ceo, μαρ-αίνω, βροτός (for μροτός); minuo, μινύθω ; um-erus, ὦμος; &c.

3. but in inflexions final m corresponds to Greek v; so in the acc. sing. and gen. pl. of nouns and in the 1st pers. sing. of verbs: e.g. nāvem, vaûv; musarum, μovoŵv; sim, siem, ‹ïŋv ; ferebam, ëþepov.

83

SUBSTITUTION: 1. for p or b before a nasal suffix; e. g. som- 84 nus, comp. sop-or, sõp-io; scam-num compared with scab-ellum; Sam-nium with Sab-ini; sum-mus with sub or sup-er.

2. for n before a labial; e.g. im-pello for in-pello; &c. Compare ru-m-po with fu-n-do.

INFLUENCE: 1. often occasions the assimilation or omission 85 of a preceding consonant, especially if three consonants would otherwise be together: e. g. flam-ma (flag-); exā-men for exag-men; ju-mentum (jug-); tor-mentum (torquere); lu-men (lüc-ēre); fulmen (fulg-ēre); cæ-mentum (cæd-ere); rã-mentum (rād-ere); summovere, sum-mus (sub); contā-minare (contag-); sè-mestris (sex). But seg-men from sec-are; ag-men from ag-ĕre; &c.

So n becomes m; e.g. im-motus for in-motus; īmus, immo for Inimus, inimo (superlative from preposition in).

2. prefers a short ŭ (instead of Ŏ or i) before it; e.g. doc-umentum (doc-e-); monumentum (mon-e-). So till Cæsar's time decămus, facillimus, durissumus, maritumus, &c. Similarly æstumo, lacrăma, and in Greek words the short inserted vowel is u; e.g. Alcămena, drachuma, Tecumessa (compared with tecina, &c.).

WEAKNESS: I. Final m having a faint sound fell away; in 1st 86 pers. sing. of present, and perfect indic. and future in -bo of all verbs; e.g. amo, amavi, amabo; the words sum and inquam alone

retaining it. Cato is said to have written recipie, dice, &c. for recipiam, dicam (recipiem, dicem?). Cf. Quintil. 1. 7, § 23; IX. 4. § 40.

2. In nouns early inscriptions frequently omit final m, but not regularly. Thus in the oldest Scipionic inscription Luciom is found by side of Corsica, oino (for unum), Scipione, optumo (all accusatives), duonoro (for bonorum). The omission is rare in the legal inscriptions, and in others also after 620 U.C., but is found in the vulgar wall inscriptions at Pompeii; and towards the end of the third century after Christ becomes frequent again (even in words which are not nouns; e.g. mecu, dece, oli for mecum, decem, olim).

Non is for nonum (ne-oinom, i. e. ne-unum).

3.

Before a vowel, a final syllable in m was disregarded in verse; and com in composition dropped its m; e.g. co-ire, cohibeo, coheres, coopto; cōgo (com-ago), cōperio (com-operio), como (com-emo). But m is retained in comes, com-itium, comitor.

So circu-itus; but circum-ago.

4. Before most consonants except the labials p, b, m, m becomes n; e.g. an-ceps, prin-ceps, nunc (num-ce), tantundem (tantum), ean-dem, eorun-dem, con-sul, con-fero, con-jux, con-venio, septentrio, aliquan-diu, &c. So quoniam for quom jam.

In a few compounds of com m is omitted; e.g. co-gnosco, cognatus, co-necto, cōnitor, cōnīveo, cōnubium. So in old time cosol for consul and this form was retained in the abbreviation cos; also in inscriptions cosentiont, &c. Cf. §§ 168, 167, 2.

5. m before r became b; e.g. hibernus is for hiemrinus (cf. χειμερινός). So in Greek βροτός from root μορ, morior.

V as Consonant.

CHARACTER: always v, whether as vowel or consonant. 87 (Throughout this article v is used for the consonantal sound, u for the vowel.)

SOUND: as the English w, or perhaps, at least originally, the 88 more vocal Fr. ou in oui.

POSITION: always before a vowel, Not after any consonant, 89 except q, g, 8, 1, r; e. g. qvis, pingvis, svavis, salvus, servus.

REPRESENTATION: (i) in Greek1, 1. usually by ov (which 90 was also the usual representation of v as vowel); e.g. Servius, Zep

1 The Oscan v was represented in Greek by the digamma; e. g. Joveis, AlovFel; Clovatius, KλoƑάтw; tovtiks, TOFTO. Quintilian says olicæ litteræ, qua 'servum,'' cervum'que dicimus, etiam si forma a nobis repudiata est, vis tamen nos ipsa persequitur (xii. 10. 29).

ούτος; Venusia, Οὐενουσία (Polyb.); Veli, Οὐήιοι; Volsch, Οὐόλσκοι (Strab.), Ovoλoûσkoɩ, (Dion. H., Plut.), Ovóλoσkoι (Plut.); Qvintilius Varus, Κουιντίλιος Ούαρος (Joseph.); Juvenalia, Ιουουενάλια; Quadratus, Kovádparos (Dion Cass., Epit.); Equum Faliscum, Aiκονουμφάλισκον; Svessula, Σουέσσουλα (Strab.); &c.

2. after q, before i, also by v or o; e.g. Qvintus, KówTos (Polyb., Diod., Dion. H.), Kúros (Dion Cass.); Qvintilius, Kourios (Mon. Ancyr.), KVITíλios (Dion C.); Nonis Qvintilibus, Kuivriλíais Nóvvais (Plut.); Aqvinum, 'Akvîvov (Strab., Plut.); &c.

But qviku, e.g. Aqvillius, 'Akúλλcos; Qvirīnus, Kupîvos; Quirites, Κυρῖται; Aqvileia, ̓Ακυληία; Tarqvinius, Ταρκύνιος.

3. by B rarely, except in Plutarch, who has for Flavius Φλάβιος (also Φλαούιος); Livius, Λίβιος (also Polyb.); Varro, Βάρο ρων; Fulvius, Φούλβιος; Servila, Σερβιλία, (Servilius, Σερουίλλιος); Voconius, Bokovios; &c. So Pulvillus, Пoßiλλos; Flavus, Flavius, Φλάβος, Φλάβιος, also Φλαούιος (Dion. H.); Vesuvius, Βέσβιος (Dio. C. App.), but Oveσovovios (Diod.); Beneventum, BeveẞEVTÓV (Appian), but Beveovevτóv (Appian, Strabo), Beneventana, OvevoavTavý (Polyb.). Nerva and Severus in contemporary inscriptions are Νερούα, Νερβα; Σεονῆρος, Σεβήρος. In and after the sixth century after Christ ẞ appears frequently for v. Compare § 72.

(ii) of Greek. V as consonant is never found in transferring a Greek name into Latin, the digamma, which alone had the same sound, not being in use in the time of the Roman writers.

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to original Indo-European V: sometimes 91 (e.g. in first four instances given infr. 3) to G (where Greek has ß).

2. to Greek F, which often fell away without altering the word, sometimes was replaced by o or v; e.g. ævum, aiFés. deí; Ŏvis, ὄρις; ἄvis, οἴωνος (oFιωνος); ὄrum, ὤFor; silva, ὕλη (for Fa); svāvis (for svad-vis), svadus, dús (for σFndus); vallus, Fĥλos; vellus, villus, Fépiov, eipos; věhere, Foxos; vēnum, vēn-eo, avos; vēr, Γέαρ, ἦρ; verbum, Fέρεω, ῥῆμα; vesper, Γέσπερος; vestis, Γέννυμι, ἐσθής; vëtus, [ἔτος (a year); videre, Fιδεῖν, (Lac. βιδεῖν) οἶδα; viginti, Feĺkool, Boot. Fikari, (Lacon. Beíkatı); viola, Fíov; vitulus, Γιταλός; vitex, vi-men, Fιτέα; vomere, Fεμ-εῖν; volvo, Fέλυω, εἰλύω.

vah, væ, dá, ovaí; vinum, olivos; vicus, oikos. The noise of frogs is represented by koάg, which Ovid imitates by 'sub aqua sub aqua maledicere tentant.' (Met. VI. 376.)

Arvum, ȧpów, apoúpa; nervus, veûpov; věreor, ovpos, a watcher (Fop-).

3. to Greek ẞ; e.g. věn-io (bēto, perbīto, Osc. benust = venerit), βαίνω; νίνο βίος, βιόω; νότο, βιβρώσκω, βορά; ervum, ὄροβος; severus, σέβας, σέβομαι ; νόμο, βούλομαι.

SUBSTITUTION: In verse the vowel u is sometimes hardened into 92 the consonant v. Thus in Plautus, tvos, svos, tvi, svi; &c., fvit, pver, pvella, dvorum, (comp. above § 76 dvonoro, dvello); in dactylic poets, svo (Lucr. twice); genva (Verg., Stat.); pitvita (Hor.), Sat. 2,2,74 patrvi (Stat.), sinvatis, sinvatur (Sil.). Also larva, larvatis (Hor.), Sat.1.5.60 for larua, laruatis (Plaut.); milvus and reliqvus after the 8th cent. U.C. for the earlier mīluŭs, rēlicuus. In tenvis, tenvia, tenvior, the consonantal v seems to be the regular pronunciation: Statius's use is peculiar. See § 142.

INFLUENCE: 1. The vowel Ŏ when following v (consonant 93 or vowel) was retained till the Augustan age and later, though after other letters it had usually changed to u; e.g. servos, nom. sing., æqvom, &c. Vorto and derivatives are said by Quintilian (i. 225), to have been changed to verto, &c. by Scipio Africanus (i.e. minor), but the forms with e are not usually found in republican inscriptions.

2. medial v causes omission of preceding consonant; e.g. sē voco for sed-voco; seviri for sexviri; pavi from pasco (for pas-sco).

3. The consonantal character of v is shown by its use in metre (a) in not causing elision, e. g. dicerě verba :

(b) in lengthening with another consonant a preceding short vowel. Comp. volvo, võlutus. But it has not this effect when following q; e.g. ǎqva.

WEAKNESS: I. V between two vowels usually fell away, or 94 resumed its vowel power and formed a diphthong or long vowel with the preceding vowel: the succeeding vowel was absorbed in either case.

(a) in perfect suffix; e.g. amāram for amāvēram; fiēram for flēveram; nōram for nōvěram; plui for plūvi; audieram for audīvěram; amasse, for amavisse; petiit, petīt for pětivit; fōvi for föv-vi; &c.

(b) nauta for nāvita; auceps for ǎviceps; cautor for căvitor; cauneas for cave ne eas (Cic. Div. II. 40); Gnæus for Cnaivos; prædes for prævides; ætas for ævitas; præco for prævico (voc-āre), horsum for ho-vorsum; hornus for ho-ver-nus; cunctus for co(m)vinctus; prüdens for prövidens; Juppiter for Jõvipater; jucundus for jövicundus; jūnior for jŭvěnior; üpilio for Ŏvipilio (cf. BoνtóAos); nuper for novumper; oblitus for oblivitus; rursum for reversum; brúma for brěvima; nōlo for. něvŏlo; neu, seu for neve, sive (neve, seve old).

So in Plautus, Jovem, Ŏvis, bõves, brevi, and (after Greek model) nāvem are monosyllables, and ǎvonculus, oblivisci trisyllables.

2. v, after any other consonant than q, g, s, 1, or r, was vocalised: e.g. vacuus for (old form) võзīvos. (Plautus wrote always vacivos or vocivos.) Compare conspicuus, arduus, annuus, noctua, with longinqvus, curvus, fulvus. (But also suŭs, irriguus, patruus.)

The dactylic poets, not after Augustan age, sometimes vocalised a (usually) consonantal v. Thus suãdeo, suēsco (Lucr.); sŭērunt (Cic.); suētus (Lucr., Hor.); sõlão, dissõlŭo, &c., (Lucr., Cat. and elegiac poets); consecue, and (for aqvæ) ǎcùãi, ǎcùæ (Lucr.); võluo, (elegiac); silüæ (Hor.). So adsecue, obsecuŭm (Plaut.).

decuria, centuria, curia are probably for dec-vir-ia, cent-vir-ia, co-vir-ia.

3. v fell out in some few words; e. g. sāvium for svavium; tibi, te for tvibi, tve; ungo, tingo, urgeo for ungvo, tingvo, urgveo. (In slave names, e. g. Publipor, Marcipor, por is for puer, probably the e being extruded).

So also qum, qur is sometimes written for quom, quor, or cum, cur.

4. Apparently an initial v has fallen off in some words beginning with r and 1; e.g. rosa, pódov, Æol. ẞpódov; rigare, ẞpéxew; radix, pica, Lesb. ßpioda; lacer, pákos, Æol. ẞpákos; lupus, Germ. wolf; laqueus, Bpóxos. (Compare our pronunciation of wreck, wreak, wrong, wrought, &c.)

5. v after d hardened to b, and then a fell off; e.g. duellum, bellum, &c. (see § 76).

In a few words medial v changed to b; e.g. deferbui, bubile; see § 76. 2, and compare the examples in § 90. 3.

6. On the confusion in late Latin of v and b see § 72.

F.

CHARACTER: before 500 U. C. sometimes I', which is also 95 found in (later) cursive writing; e.g. the wall inscriptions at Pompeii. (See also E, § 226.) The sign F is the Æolic digamma, which the Latins adopted instead of 8, which form was used by the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Oscans.

SOUND: a sharp labio-dental fricative formed between the upper 96 teeth and under lip: English F. The dental element appears to have been predominant.

POSITION: never final except in the old rarely used form of ab, 97 viz. af1. Can stand in the commencement of a syllable before or r; e.g. fluo, frango; but not after a consonant.

REPRESENTATION: 1. in Greek by ; e.g. Fabius, Háßios; 98

1 This word, apparently a form of the preposition ab, is found only before consonants, chiefly in Republican inscriptions; e.g. af Capua, af vobeis, af solo. Corssen holds af, ab and au (see § 78. 3) to be all three of distinct origin (Ausspr. 1. 152-157, ed. 2).