Fortuna, PoρToûva; Furius, Doúpios; Fidena, didńvn; præfectorum, πраιþéктwν (Polyb.) &c. Quintilian (1. 4, 14) says the Greeks used to pronounce the Latin f with an aspiration, and instances Cicero's ridiculing a witness for not being able to pronounce the first letter of Fundanius.

2. of Greek p, not until 4th century after Christ. So in the MS. of Gaius, elefantis, chirografis, &c.

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to an original Indo-European bh and dh. 99 2. to Greek initial (which was followed by an aspirate, not English ph or f); e.g. fa-ri, fa-ma, pávaι, dýμn; für, dwp; fero, pépw; fluo, pλúw (bubble); frāter, opárnp (clansman); fu-1, φύω; folium, φύλλον; farcio, φράσσω; füga, φυγή; frigo, φρύγω; fagus (beech), pnyós (oak); fallo, σpáλλw; fungus, opóyyos; funda, σφενδόνη.

3. to Greek B (rare); e.g. frèmo, ẞpéμw; fascino, Baokaívw; föd-io, Bóð-pos.

4. to Greek x (which was followed by an aspirate1); e.g. frio, χρίειν; fel, χολή; fä-mes, fă-tisco, χῆτος, χατίζω; frenum, χαλινός; funis, σχοῖνος.

5. to Greek digamma, later an aspirate; e.g. frango, Fpńyvμɩ, ῥήγνυμι; frigeo, frigus, ῥιγέω, ρίγος.

6. to Greek initial (which was followed by an aspirate, not English th); e.g. fē-mina, Oñ-λus; -fen-do, Oeivw; féra, Ońp, Æol. Φήρ; foris, θύρα; fu-mus, sub-f-0, θυμός, θύω, θύελλα; 1180, fig-ura, θιγγάνω, θίγμα. Also to medial 6 in rufus, ερυθρός.

SUBSTITUTION: 1. for d in preposition ad; e.g. before af- 100 fero, af-fătim, &c.

2. In ef-fĕro, ef-fatus for older ecfero, ecfatus, the first ʼn may perhaps be only a mark of a long syllable for efero, efatus.

INFLUENCE: 1. requires a preceding nasal to be n; e.g. in- ci fero, con-fero, &c. an-fractus for amb-fractus.

2. nf lengthens a preceding vowel; See under N (§ 167. 2).

WEAKNESS: Parts of the stem fu- are supposed to have been modified and used as a verbal suffix, viz. ama-vi to stand for amafui; ama-bam for ama-fuam, ama-bo for ama-fuio. But see Preface.

1 In English we substitute f (in speaking) for the guttural gh in laugh, cough, trough.

102

CHAPTER VII.

GUTTURALS AND PALATALS.

K, C.

GHARACTER: as above, except that c was in early inscriptions 103 sometimes angular <.

k went out of use at an early period, probably before the decemviral laws, almost entirely, except in a few old abbreviations; e. g. in republican inscriptions, K. for Kæso; k. k. for kalumniæ causa; XVIR. SL. IVDIK. for Decemvir stlitibus (litibus) judicandis ; K. or KAL. for Calendæ; INTERKAL. for intercalares; MERK. for Mercatus; and in later times K for caput, cardo, castra, carus, and KAR. for Carthago. In early inscriptions the words Kastorus (Castoris), Korano (Coranorum ?); Kæl. for Cælius; Dekem. for Decembres also occur. There was a tendency with some grammarians in Quintilian's time (1. 7, 10) to use k always before a.

SOUND: K always as the sharp guttural mute: i. e. English k. C was used indiscriminately for both the sharp and flat guttural mute, till the beginning of the sixth century u. c., when a modified form (G) was introduced for the flat sound. A few instances, probably accidental, are found in later inscriptions.

For Gaius and

Gnæus the abbreviations always followed the old form, viz. C. Cn. C had not the sound of s (as in English). Nor does ci before a vowel appear to have been pronounced as sh, except provincially, before the 6th or 7th century after Christ (see § 110. 4).

104

POSITION: never final, except in a few words from which a 105 short ě has fallen off: dic, duc, fac, ac, sic, hic, illic, &c. for dice, duce, &c. Also usually lac for lacte (nom. sing.).

It can stand in the commencement of a syllable (1) before 1, r; e. g. clamo, crimen, &c.: (2) after s; e.g. scindo, scribo, &c.

REPRESENTATION: (i) in Greek by κ always; e. g. Campani, 106 Καμπανοί ; Lucius Cecilius, Λεύκιος Καικίλιος ; centurio, κεντυρίων ; Curius, Kópios; Cornelius, Kopvýλios (all in Polybius): pontifices, ποντίφικες ; Numfcius, Νομίκιος ; Cicero, Κικέρων ; Compltalla, Κομ πιτάλια; &c.

(ii) of Greek 1. k; e.g. λvykós, lyncis; Kiλg, Cilix; Kúκλωψ, Cyclops; Περδίκκας, Perdiccas; Κίμων, Cimon; Κάδμος, Cadmus; &c.

2. also in early times x; e. g. Bacas, (i. e. Baccas) for Baxxas in the (so-called) S. C. de Bacanalibus, A.U.C. 568; and in later inscriptions Cilo for Xiλov; Antiocus for 'Avrioxos; &c. But the h was usually written in Cicero's time (Or. 48. § 160).

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to an original Indo-European K.

2. to Greek ; e. g. arx, arceo, aркios, άρкéw; decem, déκa; dico, maledic-us, δείκνυμι, δίκη; döcet, δοκεῖ; centum, ἕκατον (i. e ev-Kaт-ov One hund-red); socer, éκupós; cădus, kádos; călare, calendæ, nomenclator, καλεῖν, κλήτωρ; cerebrum, κάρα; caput, κεφαλή; cluo, cli-ens, inclutus, kλów, KAUTÓS; cănis (for cvanis), kúwv; spècio, σκοπεῖν; cüculus, κόκκυξ, cuckoo; scipio, σκῆπτρον; &c.

107

3. to Greek π (cf. § 118); e. g. voc-are, võx, eπ-os eiñov, ö↓ (stem Feπ-); Ŏc-ulus, öπ-ш¡¡-α, „; sūcus, săpio, óñós; jěcuг, ýπар. SUBSTITUTION: 1. for g before a sharp; e. g. actus from ag-o; 108 punctus from pungo; rexi= rec-si from reg-o; &c.

2. for h before t; e. g. trac-tus from trah-o; vec-tus from věh-o.

3. frequently written for final consonant of ob, sub, ad, id, in composition before c or q; e. g. oc-curro, suc-curro, ac-curro, iccirco, quicquid, acquiro. So also ecce, ecquis for en-ce, enquis.

4. cu for quo; e. g. cum, cuius, cui, cur, &c. for quom, quoius, quoi, quor, &c.; cotidie for quotidie; quicumque for quiquomque; alicubi for aliquŏbi; ĕcus, cŏcus, hircus, æcus, anticus, oblicus, for equos, coquos, hirquos, æquos, antiquos, obliquos (all in nom. sing.); secuntur, locuntur for sequontur, loquontur. Both forms were in use from the later part of the republic, till after the middle of the first century after Christ, when quo- began to give place to quu, the forms with c however remaining also, and being often found in our earliest MSS. Quum appears to be not earlier than the fourth century after Christ.

INFLUENCE: 1. changes a preceding flat consonant in prepo- 109 sitions and pronouns to c; e. g. ac-curo, ic-circo, &c. §108).

·21.

occasions omission of preceding dental; e. g. ac for atc, atque; hoc for hodce.

3. changes preceding m to n (sounded here as the guttural nasal § 162); e. g. hunc, nunc, tunc, for hum-ce, num-ce, tum-ce; anceps for am-ceps; prin-ceps for primi-ceps; sinciput for semi&c.

caput;

WEAKNESS: 1. c is omitted before m, n, t, the preceding 110 vowel being lengthened to compensate; e. g. lú-na, lu-men, compared with luc-eo; dē-ni (for děcíni) from děc-em; quini (for quincini) from quinque; lāna, lānugo compared with λáx-vn; arānea with apáxin; limus, slant, with licinus, crumpled, obliq-uus, λéxpis, λik-pipis; pi-nus for pic-nus (pic-, nom. pix), vā-nus compared with vac-uus; au-tumnus from aug-eo; dūmēta for dumec-ta; sētius for sectius; nitor for gnic-tor, comp. nixus, geniculum.

2.

c is often omitted when preceded by 1, r, n, and followed by a consonant; e. g. ar-tus for arc-tus; far-tus for farc-tus ; ful-tus for fulc-tus; ul-tus for ulc-tus; quin-tus for quinc-tus; nac-tus as well as nanc-tus; nasturtium for nas-torctium; fulmentum from fulc-ire; mul-si, mulsum from mulc-ēre; &c.

3. Initial c is sometimes omitted before 1, r, n; e. g. lãmentum compared with clāmare; læna with χλαῖνα; äläpa with κόλαφος (a Syracusan word?); raudus, rūdus with crudus; nīdor with kviσa.

4. ci (before a vowel) is often confused with ti in the spelling of derivative suffixes, partly from doubts as to the etymology of a word, partly from the palatilisation of both ci and ti (=sh) in times when the MSS. were written. cl for ti does not appear, till an African inscription in 3rd century after Christ; and not numerously before Gallic inscriptions and documents of the 7th century after Christ. ti for ci is not certainly found before end of 4th century after Christ. In certain proper names (e. g. Marcius, Martius) both forms appear to have existed as separate names with different origin, and then to have been confused.

The following appears according to inscriptions to be the correct spelling of certain disputed words: dicio, condicio, solacium, patricius, tribunicius;

contio, nuntius (and derivatives), fētialis, indūtiæ, ōtium, negōtium, sētius.

Both suspicio and suspitio, convicium and convitium are found in good MSS.; neither in inscriptions.

X.

This character is a mere abbreviation for cs. It is first found in 111 a single sexto, referred to times before the second Punic war, and afterwards not until S. C. de Bacc. 186 B. C. (The inscriptions before this date are but few.)

In inscriptions at all times (perhaps from regarding x as a mere guttural like Greek x) xs is often found instead of x; e.g. exstrad,

(in S. C. de Bacc.), taxsat, lexs, proxsumus, exsigito, deixserit, by side of exigatur, exterarum, taxet, &c. in laws of Gracchus' time. So in Greek Σέξστος and Σέξτος. In the Augustan age and subsequently, the simple x is the more frequent.

INFLUENCE: Words beginning with s, if compounded with ex, 112 usually dropped the s, but the retention is not unfrequent; e.g. exilium, also exsilium; expecto, also exspecto; &c.

WEAKNESS: Before semivowels, liquids, nasals, and flat mutes, 113 sex and ex in composition usually dropped x; e.g. sēviri, sējūgis, sēmestrīs, sēdecim, sēni, ēduco, escendo (but exsto or exto); ēvǎdo, ējuro, ēmergo, elicio, ēnormis. So also e for ex out of composition, after (rarely in inscriptions before) Augustan age.

Before c, sex became ses; e. g. sescenti.

Before f, ex became (or reverted to) ec; e. g. ecfari, ecficio.

Before 1 and m a medial x was sometimes omitted; e. g. tēla for texula; subtēmen for subteximen; subtilis for subtexilis; māla for maxula; paulus for pauxillus; ala for axula; &c.

Q.

CHARACTER: In one or two very old inscriptions Q is like, the Greek Koppa with a short vertical stroke: its normal form in the best period was with a horizontal stroke to the right.

114

SOUND: the same as k, the sharp guttural mute. It is always 115 followed by the consonantal u, except in some old inscriptions where it is immediately followed by the vowel u (§ 119). Qu was probably sounded as it is in English, i.e. as kw, and was regarded in prosody as a single sound. But see App. A. xx.

POSITION: never final, or followed immediately (with or with- 116 out the consonantal u) by any consonant: nor preceded immediately in the same syllable by any consonant except s; e.g. squama.

REPRESENTATION: (i) q in Greek by κ: qu by kov, ku, or ko; 117

see § 90.

(ii) of Greek. Q is not used in writing any Greek word.

CORRESPONDENCE: I. qv to original Indo-European kv (SO 118 Lepsius, Donaldson, Grassmann, L. Meyer); or to k, to which a parasitic v very early fastened itself (Curtius, Corssen). Some languages exhibit the labial, some the guttural.